人类非洲锥虫病 (HAT) 的传统诊断采用三步法,依次为:
通过确认患者是否曾生活在流行病区或前往流行病区旅游,并结合临床体征和症状或血清学证据(血液中存在锥虫特异性抗体)来确定疑似患者。
检测到寄生虫即可确诊感染锥虫病。相对容易发现罗得西亚锥虫型人类非洲锥虫病,但是往往难以发现冈比亚锥虫型人类非洲锥虫病,即使采用浓集方法,也很难检测到寄生虫。鉴于此,在某些流行的情况下,获得血清学和临床证据之后就开始采取治疗措施。[41]Chappuis F, Stivanello E, Adams K, et al. Card agglutination test for trypanosomiasis (CATT) end-dilution titer and cerebrospinal fluid cell count as predictors of human African trypanosomiasis (Trypanosoma brucei gambiense) among serologically suspected individuals in Southern Sudan. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2004 Sep;71(3):313-7.http://www.ajtmh.org/content/journals/10.4269/ajtmh.2004.71.313#html_fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15381812?tool=bestpractice.com
一旦发现寄生虫或存在高度怀疑,例如锥虫病卡片凝集试验 (card agglutination test for trypanosomiasis, CATT) 最终滴度升高和/出现或神经系统症状,则应进行腰椎穿刺术和脑脊液 (CSF) 检查以确定疾病分期。根据患者的疾病分期情况和感染锥虫亚种类型(罗得西亚锥虫或冈比亚锥虫)来确定治疗方案。
病史和临床检查
初诊时应对曾前往撒哈拉以南非洲HAT流行区游览,且被舌蝇叮咬过的患者提高警惕,尽管这种叮咬可能未引起患者注意。
症状和体征是非特异性的,表现多种多样,因此不足以用于临床诊断和分期。来自非流行病区的患者起病症状通常更加急剧。[17]Duggan AJ, Hutchinson MP. Sleeping sickness in Europeans: a review of 109 cases. J Trop Med Hyg. 1966 Jun;69(6):124-31.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5940665?tool=bestpractice.com[42]Urech K, Neumayr A, Blum J. Sleeping sickness in travelers - do they really sleep? PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2011 Nov;5(11):e1358.http://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0001358http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22069503?tool=bestpractice.com 患者往往具有疟疾治疗史,但病情未得到缓解。[43]Odiit M, Shaw A, Welburn SC, et al. Assessing the patterns of health-seeking behaviours and awareness among sleeping-sickness patients in eastern Uganda. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2004 Jun;98(4):339-48.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15228715?tool=bestpractice.com[44]Bukachi SA, Wandibba S, Nyamongo IK. The treatment pathways followed by cases of human African trypanosomiasis in western Kenya and eastern Uganda. Ann Trop Med Parasitol. 2009 Apr;103(3):211-20.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19341536?tool=bestpractice.com
在疾病第 1 阶段可能观察到的症状和体征包括:
冈比亚锥虫病患者从早期进展至晚期平均需要 500 天时间。[45]Checchi F, Filipe JA, Haydon DT, et al. Estimates of the duration of the early and late stage of gambiense sleeping sickness. BMC Infect Dis. 2008 Feb 8;8:16.http://bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2334-8-16http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18261232?tool=bestpractice.com 在冈比亚锥虫感染第二阶段中,第一阶段的体征仍然存在,并且神经系统受累的体征变得明显,包括:
在罗得西亚锥虫病患者中,症状持续时间提示患者会在感染后 3 周至 2 个月内进展至晚期。[46]Odiit M, Kanshme F, Enyaru JCK. Duration of symptoms and case fatality of sleeping sickness caused by Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense in Tororo, Uganda. East Afr Med J. 1997 Dec;74(12):792-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9557424?tool=bestpractice.com 由于病情发展迅速,患者神经系统受累症状可能缺失。患者通常会因多器官衰竭或心力衰竭而入院接受治疗,同时心电图将出现异常结果。[42]Urech K, Neumayr A, Blum J. Sleeping sickness in travelers - do they really sleep? PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2011 Nov;5(11):e1358.http://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0001358http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22069503?tool=bestpractice.com[47]Cottle LE, Peters JR, Hall A, et al. Multiorgan dysfunction caused by travel-associated African trypanosomiasis. Emerg Infect Dis. 2012 Feb;18(2):287-9.http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/18/2/11-1479_article.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22305185?tool=bestpractice.com
实验室检查
尽管血液异常不足以确诊人类非洲锥虫病,但是常见的血液异常包括:[3]Chappuis F, Loutan L, Simarro P, et al. Options for the field diagnosis of human African trypanosomiasis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2005 Jan;18(1):133-46.http://cmr.asm.org/content/18/1/133.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15653823?tool=bestpractice.com[48]Greenwood BM, Whittle HC. The pathogenesis of sleeping sickness. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1980;74(6):716-25.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7010694?tool=bestpractice.com
因此,可以进行全血细胞计数、红细胞沉降率和血清免疫球蛋白检测以支持诊断。
曾有报告称,在冈比亚锥虫感染期间,患者存在各种非特异性抗体,因此造成误诊的风险,导致没有检测到人类非洲锥虫病。
血液内锥虫特异性抗体可通过以下手段检测:
适用于冈比亚锥虫病的锥虫病卡片凝集试验。此项试验可用来筛查冈比亚锥虫病流行地区中的高危人群。
适用于冈比亚锥虫病和罗得西亚锥虫病患者的酶联免疫吸附测定或免疫荧光测定。
现已开发了检测锥虫特异性抗体快速验血方法。 它们具有个体检测试验的优点,可以替代锥虫病卡片凝集试验。 因此,它们特别适用于偶尔接诊人类非洲锥虫病的非专科医疗中心。[49]Sullivan L, Wall SJ, Carrington M, et al. Proteomic selection of immunodiagnostic antigens for human African trypanosomiasis and generation of a prototype lateral flow immunodiagnostic device. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013;7(2):e2087.http://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0002087http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23469310?tool=bestpractice.com[50]Büscher P, Gilleman Q, Lejon V. Rapid diagnostic test for sleeping sickness. N Engl J Med. 2013 Mar 14;368(11):1069-70.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMc1210373http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23484849?tool=bestpractice.com[51]Büscher P, Mertens P, Leclipteux T, et al. Sensitivity and specificity of HAT Sero-K-SeT, a rapid diagnostic test for serodiagnosis of sleeping sickness caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense: a case-control study. Lancet Glob Health. 2014 Jun;2(6):e359-63.http://www.thelancet.com/journals/langlo/article/PIIS2214-109X(14)70203-7/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25103304?tool=bestpractice.com[52]Bisser S, Lumbala C, Nguertoum E, et al. Sensitivity and specificity of a prototype rapid diagnostic test for the detection of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense infection: a multi-centric prospective study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2016 Apr 8;10(4):e0004608.http://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0004608http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27058033?tool=bestpractice.com
根据临床表现或血清学试验确定疑似患者之后,应进行显微镜检查,以查明是否存在寄生虫:
厚血涂片染色检查是最常用的显微镜检查方法,并可以鉴别诊断疟疾。采用此项技术检测的冈比亚锥虫感染结果可能仍然呈阴性,原因在于冈比亚锥虫病感染的特点是血液中的寄生虫数量水平低。
血液浓集技术,例如微量红细胞离心技术、白膜法或微型阴离子交换离心技术 (mini-anion exchange centrifugation technique, mAECT),适用于检测冈比亚锥虫病。可能需要进行重复检查才能发现冈比亚锥虫病。mAECT 被认为是最佳检查方法,敏感性约为 75%-85%。[53]Miezan TW, Meda AH, Doua F, et al. Evaluation of the parasitologic techniques used in the diagnosis of human Trypanosoma gambiense trypanosomiasis in the Ivory Coast [in French]. Bull Soc Pathol Exot. 1994;87(2):101-4.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8061525?tool=bestpractice.com[54]Lutumba P, Robays J, Miaka C, et al. Validity, cost and feasibility of the mAECT and CTC confirmation tests after diagnosis of African of sleeping sickness [in French]. Trop Med Int Health. 2006 Apr;11(4):470-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16553930?tool=bestpractice.com 采用白膜法将更大量血液样本通过离子交换柱时,微型阴离子交换离心技术的敏感性可以提高到 91%-96%。[55]Camara M, Camara O, Ilboudo H, et al. Sleeping sickness diagnosis: use of buffy coats improves the sensitivity of the mini anion exchange centrifugation test. Trop Med Int Health. 2010 Jul;15(7):796-9.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-3156.2010.02546.x/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20497407?tool=bestpractice.com[56]Mumba Ngoyi D, Ali Ekangu R, Mumvemba Kodi MF, et al. Performance of parasitological and molecular techniques for the diagnosis and surveillance of gambiense sleeping sickness. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014 Jun 12;8(6):e2954.http://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0002954http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24921941?tool=bestpractice.com
医学界通常认为,可以通过显微镜检查任何体液,如果发现在任何体液内存在锥虫即可确诊锥虫病。 偶尔,通过血清学检查确诊冈比亚型人类非洲锥虫病患者,如曾确诊一名生活在流行病地区的患者,其在使用不同的滴度测定阈值情况下,通过锥虫病卡片凝集试验发现其血清学检查为阳性,以此为依据确诊。[41]Chappuis F, Stivanello E, Adams K, et al. Card agglutination test for trypanosomiasis (CATT) end-dilution titer and cerebrospinal fluid cell count as predictors of human African trypanosomiasis (Trypanosoma brucei gambiense) among serologically suspected individuals in Southern Sudan. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2004 Sep;71(3):313-7.http://www.ajtmh.org/content/journals/10.4269/ajtmh.2004.71.313#html_fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15381812?tool=bestpractice.com[57]Simarro PP, Ruiz JA, Franco JR, et al. Attitude towards CATT-positive individuals without parasitological conformation in the African trypanosomiasis (T b gambiense) focus of Quiçama (Angola). Trop Med Int Health. 1999 Dec;4(12):858-61.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-3156.1999.00494.x/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10632994?tool=bestpractice.com[58]Inojosa WO, Augusto I, Bisoffi Z, et al. Diagnosing human African trypanosomiasis in Angola using card agglutination test: observational study of active and passive case finding strategies. BMJ. 2006;332:1479-1483.http://www.bmj.com/content/332/7556/1479.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16777858?tool=bestpractice.com
可以通过显微镜检查其他体液发现患者体内是否存在锥虫,这些体液包括:
冈比亚锥虫病患者的淋巴结抽取物
罗得西亚锥虫病患者的硬下疳抽取物
脑脊液。
虽然脑部磁共振成像在人类非洲锥虫病诊断中没有起到任何作用,但是锥虫病患者可见脑膜增厚以及幕上白质、脑干和小脑的双侧融合性高 T2 信号。 成功治愈后发生异常的情况依然存在。[59]Kager PA, Schipper HG, Stam J, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging findings in human African trypanosomiasis: a four-year follow-up study in a patient and review of the literature. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2009 Jun;80(6):947-52.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19478256?tool=bestpractice.com
免疫溶锥虫试验是一项新兴检查,此试验在人类血清或血浆中培养活的冈比亚锥虫。[60]Van Meirvenne N, Magnus E, Büscher P. Evaluation of variant specific trypanolysis tests for serodiagnosis of human infections with Trypanosoma brucei gambiense. Acta Trop. 1995 Dec;60(3):189-99.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8907397?tool=bestpractice.com[61]Jamonneau V, Bucheton B, Kaboré J, et al. Revisiting the immune trypanolysis test to optimise epidemiological surveillance and control of sleeping sickness in West Africa. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2010 Dec 21;4(12):e917.http://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0000917http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21200417?tool=bestpractice.com 免疫溶锥虫试验的特异性被认为已达到 100%,免疫溶锥虫试验结果呈阳性表明患者接触过冈比亚锥虫。该试验仅可由高度专业化的实验室进行。
疾病分期
一旦确诊感染,或见到高度可疑指标[如锥虫病卡片凝集试验(CATT)最终滴定度升高和/或患者出现神经系统症状],则应进行脑脊液检查,以确定疾病分期。
正在研究将各种脑脊液蛋白和细胞免疫系统活化的标志物作为分期和治疗结果评估的标志物。 初步结果看起来前景喜人。[62]Tiberti N, Hainard A, Lejon V, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid neopterin as marker of the meningo-encephalitic stage of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense sleeping sickness. PLoS One. 2012;7:e40909.http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0040909http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22815865?tool=bestpractice.com[63]Amin DN, Mumba Ngoyi D, Nhkwachi GM, et al. Identification of stage biomarkers for human African trypanosomiasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2010 Jun;82(6):983-90.http://www.ajtmh.org/content/82/6/983.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20519589?tool=bestpractice.com[64]Tiberti N, Lejon V, Hainard A, et al. Neopterin is a cerebrospinal fluid marker for treatment outcome evaluation in patients affected by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense sleeping sickness. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013;7(2):e2088.http://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0002088http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23469311?tool=bestpractice.com