一般方法
为了尽量减缓糖尿病肾病的进展,应开展综合治疗,同时评估和干预高血糖、高血压、血脂异常、营养和行为。改善患者行为和依从性能显著增加糖尿病及糖尿病肾病的疗效。[32]American Association of Diabetes Educators (AADE). AADE guidelines for the practice of diabetes self-management education and training (DSME/T). Chicago, IL: American Association of Diabetes Educators; 2010.[33]Diabetes Australia, Royal Australian College of General Practitioners, Australian Diabetes Society, et al. National evidence based guideline for patient education in type 2 diabetes. June 2009. https://www.diabetesaustralia.com.au/ (last accessed 23 August 2017).http://static.diabetesaustralia.com.au/s/fileassets/diabetes-australia/b9b8789d-c7ba-473d-bd49-0b7d793a0835.pdf适当营养,包括减少饱和脂肪酸、胆固醇和盐的摄入均有利于治疗。2012 年美国已发布相关治疗指南。[34]National Kidney Foundation. KDOQI clinical practice guideline for diabetes and CKD: 2012 update. Am J Kidney Dis. 2012;60:850-886.http://www.ajkd.org/article/S0272-6386(12)00957-2/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23067652?tool=bestpractice.com[35]Slinin Y, Ishani A, Rector T, et al. Management of hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia, and albuminuria in patients with diabetes and CKD: a systematic review for a KDOQI clinical practice guideline. Am J Kidney Dis. 2012;60:747-769.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22999165?tool=bestpractice.com
高血糖的治疗
高血糖的治疗包括胰岛素和口服降血糖药(例如磺脲类、美格列奈类和二肽基肽酶-4 [DPP-4] 抑制剂)。无论采用哪种治疗,对于慢性肾脏病患者均应小心用药,因为胰岛素(三分之二的胰岛素经肾脏降解)或磺脲类等药物肾脏清除率下降以及肾脏糖异生受损,该类患者存在低血糖风险。
1 型糖尿病患者需要胰岛素治疗,无论是否正在接受透析。未接受透析的 2 型糖尿病伴慢性肾脏病的患者,最初可以使用口服降血糖药物(例如,eGFR 充分时使用二甲双胍;否则使用格列吡嗪、瑞格列奈或西格列汀),之后可根据需要加入胰岛素或使用胰岛素替代。二甲双胍通常作为 2 型糖尿病的首选口服降血糖药,但在 eGFR<30 mL/min/1.73 m^2 时禁用,30-45 mL/min/1.73 m^2 水平时慎用。[36]US Food and Drug Administration. FDA drug safety communication: FDA revises warnings regarding use of the diabetes medicine metformin in certain patients with reduced kidney function. April 2016. http://www.fda.gov/ (last accessed 23 August 2017).http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm493244.htm格列吡嗪是首选的磺脲类药物,因为其代谢产物导致低血糖的可能极小或没有。[35]Slinin Y, Ishani A, Rector T, et al. Management of hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia, and albuminuria in patients with diabetes and CKD: a systematic review for a KDOQI clinical practice guideline. Am J Kidney Dis. 2012;60:747-769.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22999165?tool=bestpractice.com瑞格列奈是一种美格列奈类药物,因类似原因而被认为是该类药物中对慢性肾脏病最安全的一种药物。[37]Hatorp V. Clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of repaglinide. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2002;41:471-483.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12083976?tool=bestpractice.com也可以使用一种 DPP-4 抑制剂西格列汀,但必须根据肾功能障碍的程度调整剂量。[38]Bergman AJ, Cote J, Yi B, et al. Effect of renal insufficiency on the pharmacokinetics of sitagliptin, a dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor. Diabetes Care. 2007;30:1862-1864.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/30/7/1862.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17468348?tool=bestpractice.com慢性肾脏病(包括终末期肾病)患者也可使用其他 DPP-4 抑制剂,例如沙格列汀和利格列汀,但此类抑制剂的使用经验有限。肾功能损害患者需调整沙格列汀剂量。利格列汀具有不经过肾脏清除的优势,因此不必调整剂量。接受透析的 2 型糖尿病患者(例如因终末期肾病)首选胰岛素治疗。不过,也可以使用低剂量口服降血糖药(例如格列吡嗪或西格列汀)代替胰岛素或加入到胰岛素治疗中。没有证据支持在透析患者中使用瑞格列奈。
虽然有证据显示噻唑烷二酮类药物可降低糖尿病人群的高血糖、白蛋白尿和蛋白尿,但其临床意义尚待证实。[39]Sarafidis PA, Stafylas PC, Georgianos PI, et al. Effect of thiazolidinediones on albuminuria and proteinuria in diabetes: a meta-analysis. Am J Kidney Dis. 2010;55:835-847.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20110146?tool=bestpractice.com噻唑烷二酮类药物可致体液潴留。因存在诱发心血管病风险,罗格列酮在欧洲已停止使用,而在美国之前禁用的罗格列酮已重新开放使用。研究发现,钠葡糖转运系统 2 抑制剂可能对轻至中度慢性肾病有效,但该结果尚存争论。[40]Yale JF, Bakris G, Cariou B, et al. Efficacy and safety of canagliflozin over 52 weeks in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and chronic kidney disease. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2014;16:1016-1027.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24965700?tool=bestpractice.com[41]Kohan DE, Fioretto P, Tang W, et al. Long-term study of patients with type 2 diabetes and moderate renal impairment shows that dapagliflozin reduces weight and blood pressure but does not improve glycemic control. Kidney Int. 2014;85:962-971.http://www.nature.com/ki/journal/v85/n4/full/ki2013356a.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24067431?tool=bestpractice.com[42]Cherney DZI, Zinman B, Inzucchi SE, et al. Effects of empagliflozin on the urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio in patients with type 2 diabetes and established cardiovascular disease: an exploratory analysis from the EMPA-REG OUTCOME randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2017;5:610-621.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28666775?tool=bestpractice.com 对 eGFR<30 mL/min/1.73 m^2 的患者无效,包括接受透析的终末期肾病患者。
已经有大量的研究探讨了对肾病强化血糖控制的获益,但该方法仍处于研究阶段。强化治疗可防止糖尿病肾病的发生,包括防止微量蛋白尿,然而尚缺乏证据证明其是否能够延缓现存慢性肾脏病的进展。[17]Ruospo M, Saglimbene VM, Palmer SC, et al. Glucose targets for preventing diabetic kidney disease and its progression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;(6):CD010137.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD010137.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28594069?tool=bestpractice.com[43]Coca SG, Ismail-Beigi F, Haq N, et al. Role of intensive glucose control in development of renal end points in type 2 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis intensive glucose control in type 2 diabetes. Arch Intern Med. 2012;172:761-769.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/1170041http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22636820?tool=bestpractice.com[44]Fullerton B, Jeitler K, Seitz M, et al. Intensive glucose control versus conventional glucose control for type 1 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;(2):CD009122.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD009122.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24526393?tool=bestpractice.com此外,心血管疾病是糖尿病患者死亡的主要原因,但目前尚无证据证明其能减少心血管疾病风险。
糖尿病控制和并发症研究小组临床试验显示,1 型糖尿病中,对比传统治疗,强化治疗有助于降低微量白蛋白尿,减少其进展为大量白蛋白尿的风险。[45]The Diabetes Control and Complications (DCCT) Research Group. Effect of intensive therapy on the development and progression of diabetic nephropathy in the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. Kidney Int. 1995;47:1703-1720.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7643540?tool=bestpractice.com斯德哥尔摩研究与上述结果相似。[46]Reichard P, Nilsson BY, Rosenqvist U. The effect of long-term intensified insulin treatment on the development of microvascular complications of diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 1993;329:304-309.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8147960?tool=bestpractice.com
英国前瞻性糖尿病研究(UKProspectiveDiabetesStudy,UKPDS)临床试验表明,对 2 型糖尿病患者,强化治疗组相比传统治疗组,微量白蛋白尿风险减少,但大量白蛋白尿风险无显著差异。[47]UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). Lancet. 1998;352:837-853.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9742976?tool=bestpractice.com另一项研究发现,与常规治疗相比,对经筛查发现的 2 型糖尿病患者强化治疗(包括血糖控制)与 5 年微血管事件发生率的显著下降并无相关性。[48]Sandbæk A, Griffin SJ, Sharp SJ, et al. Effect of early multifactorial therapy compared with routine care on microvascular outcomes at 5 years in people with screen-detected diabetes: a randomized controlled trial: the ADDITION-Europe Study. Diabetes Care. 2014;37:2015-2023.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24784827?tool=bestpractice.comKumamoto 研究[49]Shichiri M, Kishikawa H, Ohkubo Y, et al. Long-term results of the Kumamoto Study on optimal diabetes control in type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care. 2000;23(Suppl 2):B21-B29.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10860187?tool=bestpractice.com和退伍军人医疗合作研究[50]Levin SR, Coburn JW, Abraira C, et al; Veterans Affairs Cooperative Study on Glycemic Control and Complications in Type 2 Diabetes Feasibility Trial Investigators. Effect of intensive glycemic control on microalbuminuria in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2000;23:1478-1485.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/diacare/23/10/1478.full.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11023140?tool=bestpractice.com均表明强化治疗方式对初级预防(减少微量蛋白尿的发生率)及次级预防(减少向大量白蛋白尿进展)均有效。
糖尿病干预和并发症流行病学随访研究[5]Writing Team for the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial/Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications Research Group. Sustained effect of intensive treatment of type I diabetes mellitus on development and progression of diabetic nephropathy: the Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications (EDIC) Study. JAMA. 2003;290:2159-2167.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=197530http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14570951?tool=bestpractice.com以及 UKPDS 研究[47]UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). Lancet. 1998;352:837-853.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9742976?tool=bestpractice.com发现 1 型和 2 型糖尿病患者,HbA1c 水平下降能减缓 GFR 降低。不过,并不清楚退伍军人医疗合作研究的结果是否适用于长期 2 型糖尿病。[50]Levin SR, Coburn JW, Abraira C, et al; Veterans Affairs Cooperative Study on Glycemic Control and Complications in Type 2 Diabetes Feasibility Trial Investigators. Effect of intensive glycemic control on microalbuminuria in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2000;23:1478-1485.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/diacare/23/10/1478.full.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11023140?tool=bestpractice.com
ADVANCE 研究中分别应用格列齐特和培哚普利/吲达帕胺降糖和降压。结果发现单独强化降糖及降压均有效,同时对肾病、新发的微量白蛋白尿及大量白蛋白尿起到协同治疗作用。[51]Zoungas S, de Galan BE, Ninomiya T, et al; ADVANCE Collaborative Group. Combined effects of routine blood pressure lowering and intensive glucose control on macrovascular and microvascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes: New results from the ADVANCE trial. Diabetes Care. 2009;32:2068-2074.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/32/11/2068.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19651921?tool=bestpractice.com同时降压和强化降糖减少心血管病及其他原因的致死率并改善了肾病的转归。[52]Patel A, MacMahon S, Chalmers J, et al; ADVANCE Collaborative Group. Intensive blood glucose control and vascular outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:2560-2572.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa0802987#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18539916?tool=bestpractice.com[53]Poulter NR. Blood pressure and glucose control in subjects with diabetes: new analyses from ADVANCE. J Hypertens Suppl. 2009;27:S3-S8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19483505?tool=bestpractice.com强化血糖控制并不能显著减少大血管事件。[54]Joshi R, de Galan BE, Chalmers J, et al. Routine blood pressure lowering and intensive glucose control in patients with type 2 diabetes: the ADVANCE trial. Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab. 2009;4:111-118.而 ADVANCE 研究中一项分析认为,总体上每 410 例强化血糖控制的患者中有一例能成功预防终末期肾病的发生,而在出现显性白蛋白尿的患者中则为每 41 例能成功一例。[55]Perkovic V, Heerspink HL, Chalmers J, et al; ADVANCE Collaborative Group. Intensive glucose control improves kidney outcomes in patients with type 2 diabetes. Kidney Int. 2013;83:517-523.http://www.kidney-international.org/article/S0085-2538(15)55754-2/pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23302714?tool=bestpractice.com
一篇综述证明了强化血糖控制的益处。[56]Mattila TK, de Boer A. Influence of intensive versus conventional glucose control on microvascular and macrovascular complications in type 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus. Drugs. 2010;70:2229-2245.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21080740?tool=bestpractice.com控制糖尿病心血管病风险(ActiontoControlCardiovascularRiskinDiabetes,ACCORD)研究中,将治疗组的目标定为 HbA1c<42mmol/mol (6%),导致死亡率增加及研究终止。[57]Ismail-Beigi F, Craven T, Banerji MA, et al; ACCORD trial group. Effect of intensive treatment of hyperglycaemia on microvascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes: an analysis of the ACCORD randomised trial. Lancet. 2010;376:419-430. [Erratum in: Lancet. 2010;376:1466.]http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20594588?tool=bestpractice.com与 ADVANCE 研究结果不同,ACCORD 研究的一项数据分析表明,在2 型糖尿病患者中联合强化降压降糖并未在微血管结局中起到附加作用。[58]Ismail-Beigi F, Craven TE, O'Connor PJ, et al. Combined intensive blood pressure and glycemic control does not produce an additive benefit on microvascular outcomes in type 2 diabetic patients. Kidney Int. 2012;81:586-594.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22166848?tool=bestpractice.com
一项 2 型糖尿病研究表明,强化降糖对肾病进展无显著效果,但在存在进展期微血管病变、舒张压基础值低或基础 BMI 高,和一些 ACR 基础值较高且 GFR 持续恶化的患者中,有防止蛋白尿增加的作用。[59]Agrawal L, Azad N, Emanuele NV, et al. Observation on renal outcomes in the Veterans Affairs Diabetes Trial. Diabetes Care. 2011;34:2090-2094.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/34/9/2090.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21775749?tool=bestpractice.com
UK 指南建议 2 型糖尿病治疗的目标 HbA1c 为 48mmol/mol (6.5%)(可依据个体情况提高目标值)。[60]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Type 2 diabetes in adults: management. May 2017. http://www.nice.org.uk/ (last accessed 23 August 2017).https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng28目前的美国糖尿病协会指南建议将 HbA1c 保持在≤53 mmol/mol (7%) 的水平,但不包括有重度低血糖病史、预期寿命有限、晚期糖尿病并发症和共病或长期糖尿病患者,该类患者可能适合选择一个不太严格的目标(例如<8%)。[26]American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes - 2017. Diabetes Care. 2017;40(suppl 1):S1-S135.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/40/Supplement_1/这些指南已被美国肾脏基金会应用于慢性肾脏病的患者,并强调存在低血糖风险、患多种共病或预期寿命有限的患者应采取较保守的治疗措施。[34]National Kidney Foundation. KDOQI clinical practice guideline for diabetes and CKD: 2012 update. Am J Kidney Dis. 2012;60:850-886.http://www.ajkd.org/article/S0272-6386(12)00957-2/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23067652?tool=bestpractice.com一篇 Cochrane 评价认为,1 型糖尿病强化血糖控制能减少发生糖尿病微血管并发症的风险,但相关获益证据主要源自对较年轻的早期糖尿病患者的研究。需要平衡治疗的获益与风险:如老年人严重的低血糖及存在糖尿病并发症的患者。治疗的目标需要个体化,同时考虑患者年龄、疾病进展情况、大血管风险及患者的生活情况和治疗依从性。[44]Fullerton B, Jeitler K, Seitz M, et al. Intensive glucose control versus conventional glucose control for type 1 diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;(2):CD009122.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD009122.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24526393?tool=bestpractice.com
高血压治疗
治疗高血压能减缓糖尿病肾病进展。[6]Bakris GL, Williams M, Dworkin L, et al. Preserving renal function in adults with hypertension and diabetes: a consensus approach. National Kidney Foundation Hypertension and Diabetes Executive Committees Working Group. Am J Kidney Dis. 2000;36:646-661.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10977801?tool=bestpractice.com以往建议血压应维持在≤130/80 mmHg。[61]Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, et al. Seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Hypertension. 2003;42:1206-1252.http://hyper.ahajournals.org/content/42/6/1206.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14656957?tool=bestpractice.com强化降血压可防止肾衰发生,尤其对于有蛋白尿的患者。[62]Lv J, Ehteshami P, Sarnak MJ, et al. Effects of intensive blood pressure lowering on the progression of chronic kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. CMAJ. 2013;185:949-957.http://www.cmaj.ca/content/185/11/949.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23798459?tool=bestpractice.com美国国家联合委员会 8 (JNC 8) 目前建议,对于 18 至 59 岁无重大共病(例如糖尿病或慢性肾脏病)的患者以及存在糖尿病或慢性肾脏病或两者同时存在的各年龄段患者,血压的目标值是<140/90 mmHg。[63]James PA, Oparil S, Carter BL, et al. 2014 evidence-based guideline for the management of high blood pressure in adults: report from the panel members appointed to the Eighth Joint National Committee (JNC 8). JAMA. 2014;311:507-520.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1791497http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24352797?tool=bestpractice.com美国糖尿病协会也建议,糖尿病和高血压患者的血压目标值是<140/90 mmHg。[26]American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes - 2017. Diabetes Care. 2017;40(suppl 1):S1-S135.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/40/Supplement_1/该建议主要依据 ACCORD 血压临床研究的发现,该研究发现,在药物治疗获得的收缩压为 119.3 mmHg 与 133.5 mmHg 进行比较,除能够减少卒中之外,对心血管治疗的改善无显著意义且药物副作用更多。[64]Cushman WC, Evans GW, Byington RP, et al; ACCORD Study Group. Effects of intensive blood-pressure control in type 2 diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:1575-1585.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1001286#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20228401?tool=bestpractice.com然而,根据肾脏疾病——改善全球预后组织 (Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcome, KIDGO) 建议,糖尿病肾病患者可能会从更低的血压目标值中受益。[65]Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Blood Pressure Work Group. KDIGO clinical practice guideline for the management of blood pressure in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int Suppl. 2012;2:337-414.http://www.kdigo.org/clinical_practice_guidelines/pdf/KDIGO_BP_GL.pdf对于糖尿病和慢性肾脏病成人患者,KDIGO 指南建议,如果尿白蛋白排泄量小于 30 mg/24 小时,则血压目标值是≤140/90 mmHg,或者如果尿白蛋白排泄量为 30 mg/24 小时或更高,则血压目标值是≤130/80 mmHg。美国糖尿病协会 (ADA) 指出,<130/80 mmHg 的收缩压可能适合于特定的糖尿病患者个体,如较年轻的患者、白蛋白尿患者和/或高血压患者,以及存在一个或多个附加动脉粥样硬化心血管疾病危险因素的患者,但前提是无需过度的治疗负担即可达到这一目标。最近进行的一项 VA-NEPHRON D 试验分析支持<140/80 mmHg 的血压目标值。[66]Leehey DJ, Zhang JH, Emanuele NV, et al. BP and renal outcomes in diabetic kidney disease: The Veterans Affairs Nephropathy in Diabetes Trial. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2015;10:2159-2169.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26482258?tool=bestpractice.com
一线药物包括 ACEI 或 ARB。ONTARGET 研究表明 ARB 和 ACEI 类药物在预防心血管疾病、心肌梗死和脑卒中及其导致的死亡上疗效相同,[67]Yusuf S, Teo KK, Pogue J, et al; ONTARGET Investigators. Telmisartan, ramipril, or both in patients at high risk for vascular events. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:1547-1559.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa0801317#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18378520?tool=bestpractice.com[68]Mann JF, Schmieder RE, McQueen M, et al; ONTARGET investigators. Renal outcomes with telmisartan, ramipril, or both, in people at high vascular risk (the ONTARGET study): a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, controlled trial. Lancet. 2008;372:547-553.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18707986?tool=bestpractice.com并且对肾脏保护作用亦接近。[69]Wu HY, Peng YS, Chiang CK, et al. Diagnostic performance of random urine samples using albumin concentration vs ratio of albumin to creatinine for microalbuminuria screening in patients with diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med. 2014;174:1108-1115.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24798807?tool=bestpractice.comACEI 可减缓 1 型糖尿病[70]Viberti G, Mogensen CE, Groop LC, et al. Effect of captopril on progression to clinical proteinuria in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and microalbuminuria. European Microalbuminuria Captopril Study Group. JAMA. 1994;271:275-279.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8295285?tool=bestpractice.com和 2 型[71]Ravid M, Lang R, Rachmani R, et al. Long-term renoprotective effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. A 7-year follow-up study. Arch Intern Med. 1996;156:286-289.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8572838?tool=bestpractice.com糖尿病合并微量蛋白尿患者的糖尿病肾病进展。 [
]In people with diabetic kidney disease, is there randomized controlled trial evidence to support the use of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor antagonists to prevent progression?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.100/full显示答案 有研究证明在正常蛋白尿的患者中阻断肾素-血管紧张素系统延缓了视网膜病变的进展,但未能证明其预防肾病进展。[72]Mauer M, Zinman B, Gardiner R, et al. Renal and retinal effects of enalapril and losartan in type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2009;361:40-51.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2978030/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19571282?tool=bestpractice.com氯沙坦除其降血压作用之外,还能够减低血压正常的 2 型糖尿病患者的尿蛋白水平。[73]Agha A, Amer W, Anwar E, et al. Reduction of microalbuminuria by using losartan in normotensive patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a randomized controlled trial. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl. 2009;20:429-435.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19414946?tool=bestpractice.comADVANCE 试验证实正常血压患者中培哚普利/吲哒帕胺对肾脏有保护作用。[74]de Galan BE, Perkovic V, Ninomiya T, et al. Lowering blood pressure reduces renal events in type 2 diabetes. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009;20:883-892.http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/20/4/883.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19225038?tool=bestpractice.com一些研究提示肾素-血管紧张素系统阻断药物(ACEI 和 ARB)能减少尿毒症的风险和肌酐水平恶化,但可能对总死亡率无明显影响。[75]Sarafidis PA, Stafylas PC, Kanaki AI, et al. Effects of renin-angiotensin system blockers on renal outcomes and all-cause mortality in patients with diabetic nephropathy: an updated meta-analysis. Am J Hypertens. 2008;21:922-929.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18535536?tool=bestpractice.com
在白蛋白尿(包括糖尿病肾病)患者中同时应用 ACEI 及 ARB 有着广泛的研究。[76]Maione A, Navaneethan SD, Graziano G, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers and combined therapy in patients with micro- and macroalbuminuria and other cardiovascular risk factors: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2011;26:2827-2847.http://ndt.oxfordjournals.org/content/26/9/2827.long荟萃分析结果表明两药联用对减少蛋白尿的作用较单药更为显著,但可能导致血压降低、轻度 GFR 降低和血钾升高。[77]Jennings DL, Kalus JS, Coleman CI, et al. Combination therapy with an ACE inhibitor and an angiotensin receptor blocker for diabetic nephropathy: a meta-analysis. Diabet Med. 2007;24:486-493.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17367311?tool=bestpractice.com[78]Pham JT, Schmitt BP, Leehey DJ. Effects of dual blockade of the renin angiotensin system in diabetic kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Nephrol Therapeut. 2012;(suppl 2):003.http://www.omicsonline.org/effects-of-dual-blockade-of-the-renin-angiotensin-system-in-diabetic-kidney-disease-a-systematic-review-and-meta-analysis-2161-0959.S2-003.php?aid=4368不过,加拿大高血压教育项目 (Canadian Hypertension Education Program, CHEP) 不推荐在单纯性高血压、无蛋白尿的慢性肾脏病或不伴收缩性心力衰竭的冠心病患者中联用 ACEI 和 ARB。[79]Leung AA, Nerenberg K, Daskalopoulou SS, et al.; CHEP Guidelines Task Force. Hypertension Canada's 2016 Canadian Hypertension Education Program guidelines for blood pressure measurement, diagnosis, assessment of risk, prevention, and treatment of hypertension. Can J Cardiol. 2016;32:569-588.http://www.onlinecjc.ca/article/S0828-282X(16)00192-6/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27118291?tool=bestpractice.comONTARGET 研究亦证联用肾素-血管紧张素系统抑制剂并无益处,且合并较多副作用。[67]Yusuf S, Teo KK, Pogue J, et al; ONTARGET Investigators. Telmisartan, ramipril, or both in patients at high risk for vascular events. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:1547-1559.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa0801317#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18378520?tool=bestpractice.com[68]Mann JF, Schmieder RE, McQueen M, et al; ONTARGET investigators. Renal outcomes with telmisartan, ramipril, or both, in people at high vascular risk (the ONTARGET study): a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, controlled trial. Lancet. 2008;372:547-553.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18707986?tool=bestpractice.com有血管疾病风险的患者,两药联用减少蛋白尿的同时导致肾病加重(透析、肌酐水平翻倍及死亡)。ONTARGET 研究入组患者肾脏疾病风险较低,因子该研究结果可能对患有显性蛋白尿患者的治疗参考价值较低。然而两项针对有显性蛋白尿的糖尿病患者的大型临床试验(ALTITUDE 与[80]Parving HH, Brenner BM, McMurray JJ, et al; ALTITUDE Investigators. Cardiorenal end points in a trial of aliskiren for type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:2204-2213.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1208799#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23121378?tool=bestpractice.com NEPHRON-D[81]Fried LF, Emanuele N, Zhang JH, et al. Combined angiotensin inhibition for treatment of diabetic nephropathy. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:1892-1903.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1303154#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24206457?tool=bestpractice.com)已因不良安全事件中止。因此,显性糖尿病肾病患者不应进行两药联用治疗。[81]Fried LF, Emanuele N, Zhang JH, et al. Combined angiotensin inhibition for treatment of diabetic nephropathy. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:1892-1903.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1303154#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24206457?tool=bestpractice.com
利尿剂与 ACEI 和 ARB 联合应用时,能够使临床医师更好地将伴有高血压的糖尿病肾病患者的血压控制在建议的水平,多数患者需要 3 至 4 种药物达到血压控制目标。[82]Hart PD, Bakris GL. Managing hypertension in the diabetic patient. In: Egan BM, Basile JN, Lackland DT, eds. Hot topics in hypertension. Philadelphia, PA: Hanley and Belfus; 2004:249-252.对于因显著肾功能损伤而进行透析的患者,利尿剂通常对血压控制无效。在特定的肾功能残留患者中,作为透析过程中超滤的辅助治疗,袢利尿药对预防体液潴留和高血压仍是有效的。减少饮食钠盐摄入能增进 ARB 对肾脏及心血管的保护作用。[83]Lambers Heerspink HJ, Holtkamp FA, Parving HH, et al. Moderation of dietary sodium potentiates the renal and cardiovascular protective effects of angiotensin receptor blockers. Kidney Int. 2012;82:330-337.http://www.nature.com/ki/journal/v82/n3/full/ki201274a.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22437412?tool=bestpractice.com
卡维地洛有益于血糖控制和改善胰岛素抵抗,是糖尿病和慢性骨肾病患者有效的降压药物。[84]Bakris GL, Fonseca V, Katholi RE, et al. Metabolic effects of carvedilol vs metoprolol in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and hypertension: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;292:2227-2236.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=199763http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15536109?tool=bestpractice.com
非二氢吡啶类钙离子阻断剂亦能预防蛋白尿。二氢吡啶类钙离子阻断剂如氨氯地平不建议单独使用因为其可能加重蛋白尿且无证据证明其能改善疗效。[85]Lewis JB, Berl T, Bain RP, et al. Effect of intensive blood pressure control on the course of type I diabetic nephropathy. Collaborative Study Group. Am J Kidney Dis. 1999;34:809-817.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10561135?tool=bestpractice.com但在已经接受 ACEI 或 ARB 治疗的患者用也可使用。[86]Bakris GL, Weir MR, Shanifar S, et al. Effects of blood pressure level on progression of diabetic nephropathy: Results from the RENAAL Study. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163:1555-1565.http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=215837http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12860578?tool=bestpractice.com有研究发现群多普利/维拉帕米的疗效并不优于贝那普利/氨氯地平。[87]Toto RD, Tian M, Fakouhi K, et al. Effects of calcium channel blockers on proteinuria in patients with diabetic nephropathy. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich). 2008;10:761-769.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19090877?tool=bestpractice.com另一项研究发现贝那普利/氢氯噻嗪较贝那普利/氨氯地平降低蛋白尿的效果更佳。[88]Bakris GL, Toto RD, McCullough PA, et al. Effects of different ACE inhibitor combinations on albuminuria: results of the GUARD study. Kidney Int. 2008;73:1303-1309.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18354383?tool=bestpractice.com
最后,最近一项大型 meta 分析研究了伴有慢性肾病的糖尿病患者抗高血压药物的有效性和安全性,无降血压策略显示可延长生存期。ACEI 和 ARB 单用或联用是预防终末期肾病最有效的策略。不过,作者证实,ACEI 和 ARB 联合治疗有发生高钾血症和急性肾脏损伤的潜在危害风险。[89]Palmer SC, Mavridis D, Navarese E, et al. Comparative efficacy and safety of blood pressure-lowering agents in adults with diabetes and kidney disease: a network meta-analysis. Lancet. 2015;385:2047-2056.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26009228?tool=bestpractice.com
血脂异常的治疗
糖尿病伴慢性肾脏病患者心血管事件发生风险较高。由于糖尿病患者心血管疾病 (CVD) 风险高,因此糖尿病肾病患者亟需治疗以降低心血管风险,从而降低因其导致的死亡率。[34]National Kidney Foundation. KDOQI clinical practice guideline for diabetes and CKD: 2012 update. Am J Kidney Dis. 2012;60:850-886.http://www.ajkd.org/article/S0272-6386(12)00957-2/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23067652?tool=bestpractice.com美国心脏病学会/美国心脏协会 (ACC/AHA)、[90]Stone NJ, Robinson JG, Lichtenstein AH, et al; American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. 2013 ACC/AHA guideline on the treatment of blood cholesterol to reduce atherosclerotic cardiovascular risk in adults. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;63(25_PA):2889-2934.http://content.onlinejacc.org/article.aspx?articleID=1879710http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24239923?tool=bestpractice.comADA[26]American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes - 2017. Diabetes Care. 2017;40(suppl 1):S1-S135.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/40/Supplement_1/ 和 KDIGO[91]Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Lipid Work Group. KDIGO clinical practice guideline for lipid management in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int Suppl. 2013;3:259-305.http://www.kdigo.org/clinical_practice_guidelines/Lipids/KDIGO%20Lipid%20Management%20Guideline%202013.pdf 指南建议,应在心血管疾病风险的指导下进行调脂治疗(例如使用他汀类药物)。存在动脉粥样硬化心血管疾病的糖尿病患者应采取高强度他汀类药物治疗。对于近期发生急性冠脉综合征的患者或无法耐受高强度他汀类药物治疗的患者,应考虑在中等强度他汀类药物治疗中增加依折麦布。一项贝特类药物治疗的系统性综述和荟萃分析认为,这类药物亦能在轻中度慢性肾病中防止心血管事件及减轻蛋白尿。但其对肾脏的长期疗效尚不清楚。[92]Jun M, Zhu B, Tonelli M, et al. Effects of fibrates in kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;60:2061-2071.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23083786?tool=bestpractice.com慢性肾脏病患者,特别是 eGFR<30 mL/min/1.73 m^2 的患者,通常不建议使用贝特类药物。
KDIGO 认为非透析慢性肾脏病同样是一个心血管疾病风险,建议对 50 岁及以上的所有非透析慢性肾脏病患者进行他汀类药物(例如阿托伐他汀或瑞舒伐他汀)治疗;未给出特定的治疗目标。[91]Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Lipid Work Group. KDIGO clinical practice guideline for lipid management in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int Suppl. 2013;3:259-305.http://www.kdigo.org/clinical_practice_guidelines/Lipids/KDIGO%20Lipid%20Management%20Guideline%202013.pdf糖尿病和慢性肾脏病患者可能自他汀类药物中获得较大的心血管益处[7]Tonelli M, Keech A, Shepherd J, et al. Effect of pravastatin in people with diabetes and chronic kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005;16:3748-3754.http://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/16/12/3748.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16251235?tool=bestpractice.com,有证据表明,他汀类药物可能对肾功能具有有益作用。[93]Colhoun HM, Betteridge DJ, Durrington PN; CARDS Investigators. Effects of atorvastatin on kidney outcomes and cardiovascular disease in patients with diabetes: an analysis from the Collaborative Atorvastatin Diabetes Study (CARDS). Am J Kidney Dis. 2009;54:810-819.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19540640?tool=bestpractice.com
在透析患者中,若患者已经接受他汀类药物,则 KDIGO 建议继续使用该类药物治疗,但因缺乏终末期肾病中获益的证据,而不开始他汀类药物治疗。这是因为,4D 研究没有显示他汀类药物对该类患者的心血管结局有任何益处。[94]Wanner C, Krane V, Marz W, et al. Atorvastatin in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus undergoing hemodialysis. N Engl J Med. 2005;353:238-248.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16034009?tool=bestpractice.com此外,在 SHARP 研究中,辛伐他汀联合依折麦布降低低密度脂蛋白胆固醇,从而可降低非透析慢性肾病患者的主要动脉粥样硬化事件发生率,但在终末期肾病中的益处不明显。[95]Baigent C, Landray MJ, Reith C, et al; SHARP Investigators. The effects of lowering LDL cholesterol with simvastatin plus ezetimibe in patients with chronic kidney disease (Study of Heart and Renal Protection): a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2011;377:2181-2192.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21663949?tool=bestpractice.com
营养
根据美国营养学协会,由注册营养师进行医学营养治疗推荐用于 1 型或 2 型糖尿病患者。[96]Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (American Dietetic Association). 2015 Diabetes Types 1 and 2 Evidence-Based Nutrition Practice Guideline. 2015. http://www.andeal.org/ (last accessed 23 August 2017).http://www.andeal.org/topic.cfm?menu=5305一项糖尿病肾病 3-4 期患者的初始系列研究得到了阳性结果,包括 HbA1c、脂肪及体重降低,药物治疗的积极调整以及合并症减少。此外,患者应每年随访一次。[96]Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (American Dietetic Association). 2015 Diabetes Types 1 and 2 Evidence-Based Nutrition Practice Guideline. 2015. http://www.andeal.org/ (last accessed 23 August 2017).http://www.andeal.org/topic.cfm?menu=5305有证据证明低蛋白饮食能防止 GFR 下降及减缓蛋白尿进展。[16]Hansen HP, Tauber-Lassen E, Jensen BR, et al. Effect of dietary protein restriction on prognosis in patients with diabetic nephropathy. Kidney Int. 2002;62:220-228.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12081581?tool=bestpractice.com理想体重者推荐每日饮食中蛋白摄入不高于 0.8g/kg。[16]Hansen HP, Tauber-Lassen E, Jensen BR, et al. Effect of dietary protein restriction on prognosis in patients with diabetic nephropathy. Kidney Int. 2002;62:220-228.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12081581?tool=bestpractice.com高蛋白饮食应避免。但另有研究表明低蛋白饮食对 1 型或 2 型糖尿病肾病患者的肾功能并无改善。[97]Pan Y, Guo LL, Jin HM. Low-protein diet for diabetic nephropathy: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;88:660-666.http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/88/3/660.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18779281?tool=bestpractice.com此外,一项系统性回顾分析认为限制蛋白摄入对肾功能衰竭并无获益。[98]Robertson L, Waugh N, Robertson A. Protein restriction for diabetic renal disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;(4):CD002181.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17943769?tool=bestpractice.com [
]In people with diabetic renal disease, what are the effects of protein restriction?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.72/full显示答案限制饱和脂肪、胆固醇及钠盐 (2.3g/d) 的摄入有益于治疗。[99]Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM, et al; DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:3-10.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM200101043440101#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11136953?tool=bestpractice.com限盐能防止糖尿病患者发生糖尿病肾病。[100]Suckling RJ, He FJ, Macgregor GA. Altered dietary salt intake for preventing and treating diabetic kidney disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;(12):CD006763.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD006763.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21154374?tool=bestpractice.com尽管推荐使用复合维生素,但高剂量 B 族维生素会增加血管事件。[101]House AA, Eliasziw M, Cattran DC, et al. Effect of B-vitamin therapy on progression of diabetic nephropathy: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2010;303:1603-1609.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=185758http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20424250?tool=bestpractice.com
戒烟
强烈建议患者戒烟。有研究发现吸烟与 GFR 降低相关。吸烟对肾脏产生不良作用的潜在机制尚不清楚。除了其对肾功能衰竭进展的影响外,吸烟也是慢性肾脏病患者一项重要的心血管危险因素。[102]Orth SR, Ritz E. The renal risks of smoking: an update. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2002;11:483-488.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12187311?tool=bestpractice.com
因电子烟使用的增加,美国糖尿病协会指南明确指出,不支持使用电子烟替代吸烟或者辅助戒烟。[26]American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes - 2017. Diabetes Care. 2017;40(suppl 1):S1-S135.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/40/Supplement_1/
胰肾移植
糖尿病是终末期肾病需要肾脏替代治疗 (RRT) 最常见的原因。RRT 不仅费时且伴有不适的副作用,如痉挛、疲乏和中心静脉狭窄,而且也伴随有显著的并发症发病率和死亡率。胰肾移植不仅免除了患者对 RRT 的需求,而且具有显著的生存获益。随着现代外科和免疫抑制治疗方案的出现,5 年患者生存率达到 95%,肾脏存活率达到 90%,胰腺存活率高于 80%。[103]Ollinger R, Margreiter C, Bösmüller C, et al. Evolution of pancreas transplantation: long-term results and perspectives from a high-volume center. Ann Surg. 2012;256:780-786; discussion 786-787.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23095622?tool=bestpractice.com2013 年,在美国进行了 760 例胰肾联合移植 (SPK)、127 例单独胰腺移植 (PTA) 和 107 例肾移植后胰腺移植 (PAK)。[104]Kandaswamy R, Skeans MA, Gustafson SK, et al. OPTN/SRTR 2013 annual data report: pancreas. Am J Transplant. 2015;15(suppl 2):1-20.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ajt.13196/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25626343?tool=bestpractice.com
SPK 受者(60 岁或更低)通常较肾移植受者(70 岁或更低)更为年轻。通常是存在未觉察到的低血糖或糖尿病显著控制不良的 1 型糖尿病患者;通常是接受胰岛素治疗(通常<1 单位/kg/日)且 C-肽水平低于 2 ng/mL 的患者。如果 2 型糖尿病患者无显著的胰岛素抵抗(C-肽>2 且 BMI<30),则可以考虑实行。此外,受者必须 GFR<20 mL/min/1.73 m^2 或依赖透析。他们必须通过严格的心血管、心理社会学和解剖学(CT 血管造影)审查。[103]Ollinger R, Margreiter C, Bösmüller C, et al. Evolution of pancreas transplantation: long-term results and perspectives from a high-volume center. Ann Surg. 2012;256:780-786; discussion 786-787.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23095622?tool=bestpractice.com