对破伤风易感伤口进行适当处理可预防破伤风。应对所有伤口进行彻底清洗和清创。[24]Public Health England. Tetanus: the green book, chapter 30. April 2013 [internet publication].https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/tetanus-the-green-book-chapter-30[31]Liang JL, Tiwari T, Moro P, et al. Prevention of Pertussis, Tetanus, and Diphtheria with Vaccines in the United States: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep 2018;67(No. RR-2):1–44.https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/67/rr/rr6702a1.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29702631?tool=bestpractice.com[32]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases. Hamborsky J, Kroger A, Wolfe S, eds. 13th ed. Washington D.C. Public Health Foundation, 2015.https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/pinkbook/tetanus.html处理清洁的伤口和破伤风易感伤口时,应考虑到患者的免疫接种状态。对于免疫抑制患者,应按照未全程免疫者处理。[24]Public Health England. Tetanus: the green book, chapter 30. April 2013 [internet publication].https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/tetanus-the-green-book-chapter-30[31]Liang JL, Tiwari T, Moro P, et al. Prevention of Pertussis, Tetanus, and Diphtheria with Vaccines in the United States: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep 2018;67(No. RR-2):1–44.https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/67/rr/rr6702a1.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29702631?tool=bestpractice.com[32]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases. Hamborsky J, Kroger A, Wolfe S, eds. 13th ed. Washington D.C. Public Health Foundation, 2015.https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/pinkbook/tetanus.html
临床破伤风综合征的处理原则包括支持性治疗、伤口清创、使用抗微生物药物、被动和主动免疫、控制肌肉痉挛和处理自主神经功能障碍。[5]Brook I. Current concepts in the management of Clostridium tetani infection. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2008;6:327-336.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18588497?tool=bestpractice.com
清洁、小型和破伤风易感伤口的处理
预防破伤风总是优于治疗临床破伤风综合征。
被考虑为易感破伤风的伤口或烧伤如下:[24]Public Health England. Tetanus: the green book, chapter 30. April 2013 [internet publication].https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/tetanus-the-green-book-chapter-30[31]Liang JL, Tiwari T, Moro P, et al. Prevention of Pertussis, Tetanus, and Diphtheria with Vaccines in the United States: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep 2018;67(No. RR-2):1–44.https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/67/rr/rr6702a1.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29702631?tool=bestpractice.com
破伤风类毒素仅在与其他抗原(例如白喉和百日咳)联合时才可用。推荐将下列疫苗用于存在破伤风易感伤口患者的主动免疫接种:白喉/破伤风/无细胞百日咳疫苗 (DTaP);破伤风/白喉疫苗(≥7 岁的儿童和成人接种 Td;≤7 岁的儿童接种 DT);以及破伤风/低剂量白喉/无细胞百日咳疫苗 (Tdap)。建议年龄<7 岁的儿童使用 DTaP。禁忌使用百日咳疫苗成分时,使用 DT。如果患者≥11 岁且之前未接种过 Tdap 疫苗,则可接种 Tdap 疫苗。[31]Liang JL, Tiwari T, Moro P, et al. Prevention of Pertussis, Tetanus, and Diphtheria with Vaccines in the United States: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep 2018;67(No. RR-2):1–44.https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/67/rr/rr6702a1.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29702631?tool=bestpractice.com[32]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases. Hamborsky J, Kroger A, Wolfe S, eds. 13th ed. Washington D.C. Public Health Foundation, 2015.https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/pinkbook/tetanus.html
清洁的小型伤口无需使用破伤风免疫球蛋白 (tetanus immunoglobulin ,TIG)。[24]Public Health England. Tetanus: the green book, chapter 30. April 2013 [internet publication].https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/tetanus-the-green-book-chapter-30[31]Liang JL, Tiwari T, Moro P, et al. Prevention of Pertussis, Tetanus, and Diphtheria with Vaccines in the United States: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep 2018;67(No. RR-2):1–44.https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/67/rr/rr6702a1.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29702631?tool=bestpractice.com[32]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases. Hamborsky J, Kroger A, Wolfe S, eds. 13th ed. Washington D.C. Public Health Foundation, 2015.https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/pinkbook/tetanus.html
在英国,关于根据免疫接种史对清洁的小型伤口进行主动免疫的建议如下:[24]Public Health England. Tetanus: the green book, chapter 30. April 2013 [internet publication].https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/tetanus-the-green-book-chapter-30
在英国,对于存在视为高风险外伤或烧伤(伤口被泥土或其他可能含破伤风孢子的物质严重污染,或者存在大量坏死组织)的患者,不论患者免疫接种史如何,均应给予人破伤风免疫球蛋白 (TIG) 治疗,以进行即时保护。
如果有需要且可获得,应首选 TIG 肌内注射治疗。[5]Brook I. Current concepts in the management of Clostridium tetani infection. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2008;6:327-336.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18588497?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Public Health England. Tetanus immunoglobulin: recommendations on treatment and prophylaxis. April 2018 [internet publication].https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/tetanus-immunoglobulin-recommendations-on-treatment-and-prophylaxis破伤风抗毒素(马)的生产成本更低,在发展中国家(有些国家可能无法获得或难以获得)应用更加广泛,但其严重过敏发生率 (20%) 较高且半衰期较短(2 天)。[18]Farrar JJ, Yen LM, Cook T, et al. Tetanus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000;69:292-301.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1737078/pdf/v069p00292.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10945801?tool=bestpractice.com 英国公共卫生部 (Public Health England) 建议,如果无法获得 TIG,可将皮下或肌内注射人血丙种球蛋白作为替代方案。[33]Public Health England. Tetanus immunoglobulin: recommendations on treatment and prophylaxis. April 2018 [internet publication].https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/tetanus-immunoglobulin-recommendations-on-treatment-and-prophylaxis 这一策略也适用于英国以外的类似情况。
在英国,根据免疫接种史,关于在有破伤风易感伤口时进行主动免疫的建议如下:[24]Public Health England. Tetanus: the green book, chapter 30. April 2013 [internet publication].https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/tetanus-the-green-book-chapter-30
英国关于给予破伤风免疫球蛋白 (TIG) 的建议如下:[24]Public Health England. Tetanus: the green book, chapter 30. April 2013 [internet publication].https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/tetanus-the-green-book-chapter-30
在美国,对于清洁的小型伤口,如果患者已注射至多 2 剂含有破伤风类毒素的疫苗或者免疫接种史不确定,则应该使用含有破伤风类毒素的疫苗;如果患者已注射≥3 剂疫苗,则无需使用含有破伤风类毒素的疫苗,除非距上次注射已超过 10 年。无需对清洁的小型伤口使用破伤风免疫球蛋白 (TIG)。[31]Liang JL, Tiwari T, Moro P, et al. Prevention of Pertussis, Tetanus, and Diphtheria with Vaccines in the United States: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep 2018;67(No. RR-2):1–44.https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/67/rr/rr6702a1.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29702631?tool=bestpractice.com[32]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases. Hamborsky J, Kroger A, Wolfe S, eds. 13th ed. Washington D.C. Public Health Foundation, 2015.https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/pinkbook/tetanus.html
对于所有其他类型的伤口,如果患者已接种至多 2 剂含有破伤风类毒素的疫苗或者免疫接种史不确定,则应该使用含有破伤风类毒素的疫苗和 TIG;如果患者已接种≥3 剂疫苗,则无需使用含有破伤风类毒素的疫苗,除非距上次注射已超过 5 年。这类患者无需使用 TIG。[31]Liang JL, Tiwari T, Moro P, et al. Prevention of Pertussis, Tetanus, and Diphtheria with Vaccines in the United States: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep 2018;67(No. RR-2):1–44.https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/67/rr/rr6702a1.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29702631?tool=bestpractice.com[32]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases. Hamborsky J, Kroger A, Wolfe S, eds. 13th ed. Washington D.C. Public Health Foundation, 2015.https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/pinkbook/tetanus.html
如果孕妇因受伤需注射破伤风加强疫苗,且先前未接种 Tdap 疫苗,则应接种 Tdap 疫苗,而不是 Td 疫苗。[27]Committee on Obstetric Practice, Immunization and Emerging Infections Expert Work Group. Committee Opinion No. 718: Update on Immunization and Pregnancy: Tetanus, Diphtheria, and Pertussis Vaccination. Obstet Gynecol. 2017 Sep;130(3):e153-e157.https://www.acog.org/Clinical-Guidance-and-Publications/Committee-Opinions/Committee-on-Obstetric-Practice/Update-on-Immunization-and-Pregnancy-Tetanus-Diphtheria-and-Pertussis-Vaccinationhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28832489?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 美国破伤风伤口管理建议。DTaP = 白喉、破伤风类毒素和无细胞百日咳疫苗;Tdap = 破伤风类毒素、减毒白喉类毒素和无细胞百日咳;Td = 破伤风和白喉类毒素;TIG = 破伤风免疫球蛋白。*建议年龄<7 岁的儿童接种 DTaP。对于年龄≥11 岁并且既往未接种过 Tdap 的人群,Tdap 优于 Td。对于年龄≥7 岁且未全面接种百日咳、破伤风或白喉疫苗的人群,为进行伤口处理,应接种一剂 Tdap,并将其作为强化免疫接种的一部分。**对于免疫抑制患者,应按照未全面接种疫苗来处理(即,无论他们的破伤风免疫史如何,有伤口污染的患者均应接种 TIG)Liang JL et al. Prevention of pertussis, tetanus, and diphtheria with vaccines in the United States: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP).MMWR Recomm Rep. 2018;67:1-44. [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 英国清洁伤口与破伤风易感伤口的处理建议基于英国公共卫生部提供的信息。Chapter 30: tetanus. In: Immunisation against infectious disease: the green book. London: The Stationery Office, 2013 [Citation ends].
临床破伤风治疗:支持性治疗
气道管理
通常需要延长机械通气时间,有时为数周,故可尽早施行经皮气管切开术。[39]Nakajima M, Aso S, Matsui H, et al. Clinical features and outcomes of tetanus: Analysis using a National Inpatient Database in Japan. J Crit Care. 2018 Apr;44:388-391.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29304489?tool=bestpractice.com 破伤风患者唾液分泌量和支气管分泌物量均增加;口腔护理、定期进行气管吸痰和胸部理疗对预防继发性肺部感染和肺不张至关重要。 进行这些治疗时需使用镇静药物和神经肌肉阻滞剂,以避免刺激。
营养支持
由于反复肌痉挛和交感神经过度激活,破伤风患者的能量需求极高。应尽早开始营养支持,最好经胃肠道营养,以保持胃肠道的完整性。[18]Farrar JJ, Yen LM, Cook T, et al. Tetanus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000;69:292-301.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1737078/pdf/v069p00292.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10945801?tool=bestpractice.com
应激性溃疡
静脉血栓栓塞预防
物理治疗
压疮预防
临床破伤风的管理:伤口清创
伤口清创应清除孢子和坏死组织,杜绝有利于梭菌生长的缺氧环境。抗生素渗入坏死组织的能力较差,故应重视正确清创的重要性。[40]Campbell JI, Lam TM, Huynh TL, et al. Microbiologic characterization and antimicrobial susceptibility of Clostridium tetani isolated from wounds of patients with clinically diagnosed tetanus. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2009;80:827-831.http://www.ajtmh.org/content/80/5/827.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19407132?tool=bestpractice.com
临床破伤风的治疗:抗生素治疗
抗生素可抑制细菌的复制,从而减少新毒素的产生。甲硝唑已经取代苄青霉素成为治疗破伤风的首选抗微生物药物。传统上,将苄青霉素用于此目的。[18]Farrar JJ, Yen LM, Cook T, et al. Tetanus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000;69:292-301.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1737078/pdf/v069p00292.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10945801?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,苄青霉素在结构上与 γ 氨基丁酸 (GABA) 类似,可竞争性拮抗这种神经递质,这一作用可能加强破伤风毒素抑制 GABA 释放进入突触间隙并提高中枢神经系统兴奋性的效果。[18]Farrar JJ, Yen LM, Cook T, et al. Tetanus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000;69:292-301.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1737078/pdf/v069p00292.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10945801?tool=bestpractice.com
有证据表明,与苄青霉素相比,使用甲硝唑可降低死亡率。[41]Ahmadsyah I, Salim A. Treatment of tetanus: an open study to compare the efficacy of procaine penicillin and metronidazole. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1985;291:648-650.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1417474/pdf/bmjcred00464-0036.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3928066?tool=bestpractice.com 其他证据表明死亡率无差别,但甲硝唑可减少对骨骼肌松弛药物和镇静剂的需求剂量。[42]Yen LM, Dao LM, Day NPJ, et al. Management of tetanus: a comparison of penicillin and metronidazole. Paper presented at: Symposium of antimicrobial resistance in southern Viet Nam; 1997; Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. 这一差别可归因于苄青霉素对 GABA 的拮抗作用。替代性抗生素包括克林霉素、四环素和万古霉素。[5]Brook I. Current concepts in the management of Clostridium tetani infection. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2008;6:327-336.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18588497?tool=bestpractice.com
临床破伤风治疗:使用人破伤风免疫球蛋白 (TIG)
美国指南建议对临床破伤风患者使用人类破伤风免疫球蛋白 (TIG) 肌内注射剂。[5]Brook I. Current concepts in the management of Clostridium tetani infection. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2008;6:327-336.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18588497?tool=bestpractice.com[32]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases. Hamborsky J, Kroger A, Wolfe S, eds. 13th ed. Washington D.C. Public Health Foundation, 2015.https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/pinkbook/tetanus.html应在受伤后尽早给药。[5]Brook I. Current concepts in the management of Clostridium tetani infection. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2008;6:327-336.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18588497?tool=bestpractice.com 被动免疫接种可中和游离毒素,缩短破伤风的持续时间,减轻其严重程度。
如果 TIG 可用,应采用 TIG(半衰期 24.5-31.5 天)进行治疗。[5]Brook I. Current concepts in the management of Clostridium tetani infection. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2008;6:327-336.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18588497?tool=bestpractice.com[32]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases. Hamborsky J, Kroger A, Wolfe S, eds. 13th ed. Washington D.C. Public Health Foundation, 2015.https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/pinkbook/tetanus.html然而,马破伤风抗毒素在发展中国家(有些国家/地区可能无法获得或难以获得)应用更加广泛,但其严重过敏发生率 (20%) 较高且半衰期较短(2 天)。[18]Farrar JJ, Yen LM, Cook T, et al. Tetanus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000;69:292-301.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1737078/pdf/v069p00292.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10945801?tool=bestpractice.com
英国公共卫生部 (Public Health England) 建议,为了治疗临床破伤风,应静脉给予人血丙种球蛋白,而非肌内注射 TIG。[33]Public Health England. Tetanus immunoglobulin: recommendations on treatment and prophylaxis. April 2018 [internet publication].https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/tetanus-immunoglobulin-recommendations-on-treatment-and-prophylaxis 这一策略也适用于英国以外的类似情况。
TIG静脉注射制剂在英国或美国已不再可用。
临床破伤风的治疗:使用破伤风疫苗进行主动免疫接种
临床破伤风患者应接种含破伤风类毒素的疫苗,以刺激长期的体液免疫和细胞免疫。此外,破伤风类毒素可结合神经节苷脂受体,阻滞野生型毒素与此受体结合。[18]Farrar JJ, Yen LM, Cook T, et al. Tetanus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000;69:292-301.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1737078/pdf/v069p00292.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10945801?tool=bestpractice.com 应将类毒素注射到与免疫球蛋白不同的部位,以避免其被主动免疫“中和”。
临床破伤风的治疗:控制肌肉痉挛
肌肉痉挛是极度疼痛的,如果引起气道损伤或呼吸衰竭,还可能会危及生命。除抗惊厥、镇静和抗焦虑作用外,苯二氮卓类药物也是控制肌肉痉挛的主要药物。这类药物可阻滞体内抑制性递质 γ-氨基丁酸的 A 型 (GABAA) 受体。经常使用地西泮。[5]Brook I. Current concepts in the management of Clostridium tetani infection. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2008;6:327-336.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18588497?tool=bestpractice.com 大剂量使用时需要辅助通气,其辅料丙二醇可导致乳酸酸中毒。[43]Kapoor W, Carey P, Karpf M. Induction of lactic acidosis with intravenous diazepam in a patient with tetanus. Arch Intern Med. 1981;141:944-945.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7235819?tool=bestpractice.com 地西泮代谢物具有活性且半衰期较长(去甲西泮的半衰期在 100 小时以上),因此对于成人患者,首选咪达唑仑输注。[44]Attygalle D, Rodrigo N. New trends in the management of tetanus. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2004;2:73-84.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15482173?tool=bestpractice.com[45]Gyasi HK, Fahr J, Kurian E, et al. Midazolam for prolonged intravenous sedation in patients with tetanus. Middle East J Anesthesiol. 1993;12:135-141.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8413057?tool=bestpractice.com 在儿童患者中,地西泮可能会导致显著的呼吸抑制;因此,可能优选咪达唑仑或劳拉西泮。
有证据表明,地西泮对破伤风的治疗效果要优于其他镇静剂(例如吩噻嗪类和巴比妥类药物)。[46]Okoromah CN, Lesi FE. Diazepam for treating tetanus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004;(1):CD003954.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14974046?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,所涉及研究的规模较小,缺乏药物安全性数据并且存在方法论缺陷。需要开展大型多中心随机对照试验,以确定地西泮是否优于苯巴比妥和氯丙嗪。
对于有些患者,除镇静外,还需要使用非去极化神经肌肉阻滞剂来使肌肉松弛。虽然泮库溴铵可导致自主神经失调恶化,但传统上仍习惯使用此药。[47]Buchanan N, Cane RD, Wolfson G, et al. Autonomic dysfunction in tetanus: the effects of a variety of therapeutic agents, with special reference to morphine. Intensive Care Med. 1979;5:65-68.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/156745?tool=bestpractice.com 维库溴铵和罗库溴铵对自主神经系统功能失调的影响较小,可作为首选药物。
巴氯芬可刺激突触后 γ-氨基丁酸 B 型 (GABAB) 受体,并且已风险其在通过鞘内给药或输注时,可改善肌肉痉挛,但此结果仅来源于一些小型研究。[48]Engrand N, Vilain G, Rouamba A, et al. Value of intrathecal baclofen in the treatment of severe tetanus in the tropical milieu. Med Trop (Mars). 2000;60:385-388. [In French]http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11436597?tool=bestpractice.com[49]Saissy JM, Demaziere J, Vitris M, et al. Treatment of severe tetanus by intrathecal injections of baclofen without artificial ventilation. Intensive Care Med. 1992;18:241-244.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1430590?tool=bestpractice.com[50]Boots RJ, Lipman J, O'Callaghan J, et al. The treatment of tetanus with intrathecal baclofen. Anaesth Intensive Care. 2000;28:438-442.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10969374?tool=bestpractice.com[51]Dressnandt J, Konstanzer A, Weinzierl FX, et al. Intrathecal baclofen in tetanus: four cases and a review of reported cases. Intensive Care Med. 1997;23:896-902.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9310810?tool=bestpractice.com 葡萄牙 1998-2003 年的一项单中心回顾性结局研究中,将巴氯芬鞘内给药作为初始剂量,然后持续输注。[52]Santos ML, Mota-Miranda A, Alves-Pereira A, et al. Intrathecal baclofen for the treatment of tetanus. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38:321-328.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/38/3/321.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14727200?tool=bestpractice.com 这一方案成功控制了 21 名(共 22 名)3 级破伤风患者的肌痉挛和肌强直。大多数患者需要至少为期 3 周(8-30 天)的治疗。其中一名患者因鞘内导管感染继发脑膜炎。巴氯芬鞘内给药的治疗范围较小,并且在不同个体间的药效动力学差异较大。[48]Engrand N, Vilain G, Rouamba A, et al. Value of intrathecal baclofen in the treatment of severe tetanus in the tropical milieu. Med Trop (Mars). 2000;60:385-388. [In French]http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11436597?tool=bestpractice.com 仅可在专家指导用药的情况下考虑使用巴氯芬鞘内给药进行治疗。
临床破伤风的治疗:自主神经功能障碍
自主神经功能障碍非常难以控制。见于严重疾病患者,通常在患病的第 2 周出现。
硫酸镁是一种突触前神经肌肉阻滞剂,可阻滞神经和肾上腺髓质释放儿茶酚胺,并减弱受体对儿茶酚胺的反应性。它也是一种抗惊厥药和心肌钙离子通道阻滞剂。[18]Farrar JJ, Yen LM, Cook T, et al. Tetanus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000;69:292-301.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1737078/pdf/v069p00292.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10945801?tool=bestpractice.com 肌电图研究表明镁往往不影响呼吸肌,但高剂量时可能会抑制通气,从而使得需要进行通气支持。[44]Attygalle D, Rodrigo N. New trends in the management of tetanus. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2004;2:73-84.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15482173?tool=bestpractice.com[53]Lee C, Zhang X, Kwan WF. Electromyographic and mechanomyographic characteristics of neuromuscular block by magnesium sulphate in the pig. Br J Anaesth. 1996;76:278-283.http://bja.oxfordjournals.org/content/76/2/278.full.pdf+htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8777111?tool=bestpractice.com 既往有报道指出,对于重度镇静的严重破伤风患者,硫酸镁能有效辅助控制自主神经紊乱,[54]James MFM, Manson EDM. The use of magnesium sulphate infusions in the management of very severe tetanus. Intensive Care Med. 1985;11:5-12.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3968303?tool=bestpractice.com[55]Lipman J, James MFM, Erskine J, et al. Autonomic dysfunction in severe tetanus: magnesium sulfate as an adjunct to deep sedation. Crit Care Med. 1987;15:987-988.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3652717?tool=bestpractice.com 对于非机械通气患者,还能辅助成功缓解肌痉挛。[56]Attygalle D, Rodrigo N. Magnesium sulphate for control of spasms in severe tetanus. Can we avoid sedation and artificial ventilation? Anaesthesia. 1997;52:956-962.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9370837?tool=bestpractice.com 最新证据表明,与使用安慰剂相比,使用硫酸镁可明显减少对其他肌痉挛控制药物的需求,并且患者需要维拉帕米来治疗心功能异常的可能性降低。[57]Thwaites CL, Yen LM, Loan HT, et al. Magnesium sulphate for treatment of severe tetanus: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2006;368:1436-1443.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17055945?tool=bestpractice.com 对机械通气的需求无差异。[57]Thwaites CL, Yen LM, Loan HT, et al. Magnesium sulphate for treatment of severe tetanus: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2006;368:1436-1443.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17055945?tool=bestpractice.com 其他证据表明,与既往对照数据相比,硫酸镁不仅能减少控制严重肌痉挛时对神经肌肉阻滞剂的需求,而且还能减少对机械通气的需求。[58]Attygalle D, Rodrigo N. Magnesium as first line therapy in the management of tetanus: a prospective study of 40 patients. Anaesthesia. 2002;57:811-817.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12133096?tool=bestpractice.com 不一致的研究结果可能反映了研究设计和镁给药剂量上的差异。[57]Thwaites CL, Yen LM, Loan HT, et al. Magnesium sulphate for treatment of severe tetanus: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2006;368:1436-1443.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17055945?tool=bestpractice.com 提倡以 5 g 硫酸镁作为负荷剂量,静脉注射,持续 20 分钟,随后静脉输注镁剂,逐渐调整输注速度,以控制肌痉挛和肌强直。[44]Attygalle D, Rodrigo N. New trends in the management of tetanus. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2004;2:73-84.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15482173?tool=bestpractice.com 目标不是完全消除肌强直,而是将其减轻至可接受的水平,使患者能够吞咽唾液,接受口腔护理和四肢物理治疗。可能需将剂量增加至高达 4-5 g/小时,同时应监测呼吸抑制。一项关于 3 项对照试验的 meta 分析发现,与安慰剂或地西泮疗法相比,使用硫酸镁进行治疗并未能够降低患者死亡率。由于不同的研究之间方法学存在较大的差异,无法得出有关镁对 ICU 的入住时长、住院时长和机械通气支持需求影响的结论。[59]Rodrigo C, Samarakoon L, Fernando SD, et al. A meta-analysis of magnesium for tetanus. Anaesthesia. 2012;67:1370-1374.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23033859?tool=bestpractice.com
镇静剂有助于减轻自主神经不稳定性,苯二氮卓类药物和硫酸吗啡均具有这一作用。硫酸吗啡可减轻心脏和血管系统的交感紧张,提高心血管稳定性,而不影响心脏功能。[5]Brook I. Current concepts in the management of Clostridium tetani infection. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2008;6:327-336.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18588497?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Rocke DA, Wesley AG, Pather M, et al. Morphine in tetanus--the management of sympathetic nervous system overactivity. S Afr Med J. 1986;70:666-668.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3787380?tool=bestpractice.com
进一步治疗自主神经失调可能需要使用 β 受体阻滞剂。应咨询专科医生,以决定 β 受体阻滞剂的选择和剂量。无选择性的 β 受体阻滞剂(普萘洛尔)可导致猝死。[61]Buchanan N, Smit L, Cane RD, et al. Sympathetic overactivity in tetanus: fatality associated with propranolol. Br Med J. 1978;2:254-255.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1606368/pdf/brmedj00136-0030b.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/678897?tool=bestpractice.com
据报告,阿托品、可乐定和硬脑膜外/脊髓内给予布比卡因可改善个别患者或一小部分患者的自主神经紊乱。需要开展更大型的临床研究来评估这些治疗的结局指标。[62]Dolar D. The use of continuous atropine infusion in the management of tetanus. Intensive Care Med. 1992;18:26-31.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1578043?tool=bestpractice.com[63]Sutton DN, Tremlett MR, Woodcock TE, et al. Management of autonomic dysfunction in severe tetanus: the use of magnesium sulphate and clonidine. Intensive Care Med. 1990;16:75-80.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2094230?tool=bestpractice.com[64]Gregorakos L, Kerezoudi E, Dimopoulos G, et al. Management of blood pressure instability in severe tetanus: the use of clonidine. Intensive Care Med. 1997;23:893-895.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9310809?tool=bestpractice.com[65]Southorn PA, Blaise GA. Treatment of tetanus-induced autonomic nervous system dysfunction with continuous epidural blockade. Crit Care Med. 1986;14:251-252.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3943342?tool=bestpractice.com[66]Shibuya M, Sugimoto H, Sugimoto T, et al. The use of continuous spinal anesthesia in severe tetanus with autonomic disturbance. J Trauma. 1989;29:1423-1429.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2810420?tool=bestpractice.com[67]Freshwater-Turner D, Udy A, Lipman J, et al. Autonomic dysfunction in tetanus - what lessons can be learnt with special reference to alpha-2 agonists? Anaesthesia. 2007;62:1066-1070.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17845661?tool=bestpractice.com