谵妄的诊断需要细致而全面的病史采集。对于大多数病例,这可能需要与患者的家人或朋友进行面谈。在患者无法告知病史时,通过致电药房以了解患者的用药情况也可获得宝贵的信息。预先存在的关键患者因素包括以下事项:[22]Neufeld KJ, Thomas C. Delirium: definition, epidemiology, and diagnosis. J Clin Neurophysiol. 2013;30:438-442.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24084176?tool=bestpractice.com
先前的认知状态:考虑谵妄诊断时,首先需要确定症状出现之前的基线认知和功能状态。谵妄的症状经常与痴呆相混淆,可通过了解患者精神状态的变化是急性出现(谵妄)还是慢性加重(痴呆)进行鉴别。对于大多数病例,可通过患者家属初步了解患者起病前的认知状态。也可对比之前获得的认知评估结果(例如,简易智能状态检查量表 (MMSE))与当前的筛查结果,以确定认知相关症状的出现是急性还是慢性。
使用谵妄筛查工具(例如,经充分验证的意识模糊评估法 (CAM)、重症监护病房意识模糊评估法 (CAM-ICU) 或重症监护谵妄筛查量表 (ICDSC))对于确诊谵妄很有帮助。[44]Inouye SK, van Dyck CH, Alessi CA, et al. Clarifying confusion: the Confusion Assessment Method. A new method for detection of delirium. Ann Intern Med. 1990 Dec 15;113(12):941-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2240918?tool=bestpractice.com[45]Vreeswijk R, Timmers JF, de Jonghe JFM, et al. Assessment scales for delirium. Aging Health. 2009;5:409-425.[46]Wei LA, Fearing MA, Sternberg EJ, et al. The Confusion Assessment Method: a systematic review of current usage. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2008;56:823-830.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2585541/?tool=pubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18384586?tool=bestpractice.com[47]Gusmao-Flores D, Salluh JI, Chalhub RA, et al. The Confusion Assessment Method for the Intensive Care Unit (CAM-ICU) and Intensive Care Delirium Screening Checklist (ICDSC) for the diagnosis of delirium: a systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical studies. Crit Care. 2012;16:R115.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3580690/pdf/cc11407.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22759376?tool=bestpractice.com3D-CAM 是一种 3 分钟结构评估法,它利用 CAM 算法帮助床旁识别谵妄。它对于老年患者和痴呆患者具有高度敏感性和特异性。[48]Marcantonio ER, Ngo LH, O'Connor M, et al. 3D-CAM: derivation and validation of a 3-minute diagnostic interview for CAM-defined delirium: a cross-sectional diagnostic test study. Ann Intern Med. 2014;161:554-561.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4319978/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25329203?tool=bestpractice.com3D-CAM 还被用于评估谵妄的严重程度。[49]Vasunilashorn SM, Guess J, Ngo L, et al. Derivation and validation of a severity scoring method for the 3-minute diagnostic interview for confusion assessment method - defined delirium. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2016;64:1684-1689.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27374833?tool=bestpractice.com目前已开发出意识模糊严重程度评估方法 (CAM-S) 并对其进行了验证,经证实与临床结局相关。[50]Inouye SK, Kosar CM, Tommet D, et al. The CAM-S: development and validation of a new scoring system for delirium severity in 2 cohorts. Ann Intern Med. 2014;160:526-533.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24733193?tool=bestpractice.com另有研究考察了多项用于急诊科的谵妄筛查工具。[8]Han JH, Wilson A, Vasilevskis EE, et al. Diagnosing delirium in older emergency department patients: validity and reliability of the delirium triage screen and the brief confusion assessment method. Ann Emerg Med. 2013;62:457-465.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23916018?tool=bestpractice.com[51]LaMantia MA, Messina FC, Hobgood CD, et al. Screening for delirium in the emergency department: a systematic review. Ann Emerg Med. 2014;63:551-560.http://www.annemergmed.com/article/S0196-0644(13)01584-9/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24355431?tool=bestpractice.com[52]Han JH, Wilson A, Graves AJ, et al. Validation of the Confusion Assessment Method for the Intensive Care Unit in older emergency department patients. Acad Emerg Med. 2014;21:180-187.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24673674?tool=bestpractice.com[53]Han JH, Vasilevskis EE, Schnelle JF, et al. The diagnostic performance of the Richmond Agitation Sedation Scale for detecting delirium in older emergency department patients. Acad Emerg Med. 2015;22:878-882.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26113020?tool=bestpractice.com这些研究评估并验证了 CAM-ICU、简明 CAM 和谵妄分类筛查 (DTS) 的使用情况。[8]Han JH, Wilson A, Vasilevskis EE, et al. Diagnosing delirium in older emergency department patients: validity and reliability of the delirium triage screen and the brief confusion assessment method. Ann Emerg Med. 2013;62:457-465.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23916018?tool=bestpractice.com[52]Han JH, Wilson A, Graves AJ, et al. Validation of the Confusion Assessment Method for the Intensive Care Unit in older emergency department patients. Acad Emerg Med. 2014;21:180-187.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24673674?tool=bestpractice.com一项研究使用康奈尔小儿谵妄评估量表发现,儿科重症监护病房谵妄发生率为 21%。[54]Traube C, Silver G, Kearney J, et al. Cornell Assessment of Pediatric Delirium: a valid, rapid, observational tool for screening delirium in the PICU. Crit Care Med. 2014;42:656-663.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24145848?tool=bestpractice.com如果患者发病的风险较高,且怀疑其出现意识错乱,进行系列认知测量可能有助于区分谵妄与痴呆。[55]Potter J, George J; Guideline Development Group. The prevention, diagnosis and management of delirium in older people: concise guidelines. Clin Med. 2006;6:303-308.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16826866?tool=bestpractice.com少量研究同时使用了 CAM 和 CAM-ICU,以便发现痴呆患者发生谵妄的病例。[56]Morandi A, McCurley J, Vasilevskis EE, et al. Tools to detect delirium superimposed on dementia: a systematic review. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2012;60:2005-2013.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23039270?tool=bestpractice.com
药物使用情况:确诊谵妄后,应进一步了解病史并完善检查,以找出诱发因素并针对性治疗。药物与 12% 至 39% 的谵妄病例有关联,因此需要对药物使用情况进行仔细检查,只要有可能即考虑停用潜在高危药物或改用其他药物。[57]Alagiakrishnan K, Wiens CA. An approach to drug induced delirium in the elderly. Postgrad Med J. 2004;80:388-393.http://pmj.bmj.com/content/80/945/388.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15254302?tool=bestpractice.com在药物评估过程中还应考虑到草药、非处方药以及违禁药品。需要特别指出的是抗胆碱能药(例如,苯海拉明)的使用,因为它们常常可诱发谵妄;此外,患者或其家人认为安全且容易获得的非处方药(例如,扑热息痛和布洛芬)也需要额外注意。[37]Oh ES, Li M, Fafowora TM, et al. Preoperative risk factors for postoperative delirium following hip fracture repair: a systematic review. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2015;30:900-910.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4465414/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25503071?tool=bestpractice.com
共存疾病:由于谵妄通常作为常见疾病的一种症状表现出来,因此应仔细了解并评估共存疾病,其中神经系统疾病(例如,CVA、帕金森病、痴呆)、心血管疾病(例如,心肌梗死、心绞痛)和肾脏/代谢疾病(例如,低钠血症、高钠血症、慢性肾功能衰竭)应重点排查。此外,还应注意脱水、便秘、缺氧、感染、不能活动或活动受限、营养不良及感官机能受损的情况,因为这些因素也可诱发谵妄。[58]O'Mahony R, Murthy L, Akunne A, et al. Synopsis of the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence guideline for prevention of delirium. Ann Intern Med. 2011;154:746-751.http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=746969http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21646557?tool=bestpractice.com对于老年住院患者,机体功能状态恶化和脱水预示出现谵妄的可能性增大。[59]Carrasco MP, Villarroel L, Andrade M, et al. Development and validation of a delirium predictive score in older people. Age Ageing. 2014;43:346-351.http://ageing.oxfordjournals.org/content/43/3/346.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24064236?tool=bestpractice.com
疼痛程度:严重疼痛可能引发谵妄。[16]Potter J, George J. The prevention, diagnosis and management of delirium in older people: concise guidelines. Clin Med. 2006;6:303-308.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16826866?tool=bestpractice.com
酒精和药物使用:酒精中毒和戒断常常与谵妄发病相关。近期酗酒可能导致酒精性酮症酸中毒。苯二氮卓类药物戒断也可能诱发谵妄。[36]van Meenen LC, van Meenen DM, de Rooij SE, et al. Risk prediction models for postoperative delirium: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2014;62:2383-2390.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25516034?tool=bestpractice.com[37]Oh ES, Li M, Fafowora TM, et al. Preoperative risk factors for postoperative delirium following hip fracture repair: a systematic review. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2015;30:900-910.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4465414/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25503071?tool=bestpractice.com
环境因素:睡眠不足、多次手术、使用约束设备以及在重症监护室中接受治疗等常见情况均与谵妄发病有关,并可能成为诱发因素。[16]Potter J, George J. The prevention, diagnosis and management of delirium in older people: concise guidelines. Clin Med. 2006;6:303-308.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16826866?tool=bestpractice.comCAM 和 ICDSC 等工具有助于重症监护病房中谵妄病例的诊断。[3]Neto AS, Nassar AP Jr, Cardoso SO, et al. Delirium screening in critically ill patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 2012;40:1946-1951.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22610196?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Devlin JW, Fong JJ, Fraser GL, et al. Delirium assessment in the critically ill. Intensive Care Med. 2007;33:929-940.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17401550?tool=bestpractice.com[61]Van Rompaey B, Schuurmans MJ, Shortridge-Baggett LM, et al. Risk factors for intensive care delirium: a systematic review. Intensive Crit Care Nurs. 2008;24:98-107.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17949984?tool=bestpractice.com[62]Van Den Boogaard MP. Assessment of delirium in ICU patients: a literature review. Neth J Crit Care. 2010;14:10-15.
其它一些检查可根据怀疑病因的不同进行选择,包括:痰和血培养、腹部超声扫描、D-二聚体、甲状腺功能检测、促肾上腺皮质激素兴奋试验、性病研究实验室 (VDRL) 试验,以及荧光密螺旋体抗体吸附试验 (FTA-abs)。