妊娠必须通过尿液或血清人绒毛膜促性腺激素 (human chorionic gonadotrophin, hCG) 检测证实。少数病例报道,出现异位妊娠破裂,采样其尿液行妊娠试验呈阴性,但这种情况非常罕见。[36]Sheele JM, Bernstein R, Counselman FL. A ruptured ectopic pregnancy presenting with a negative urine pregnancy test. Case Rep Emerg Med. 2016;2016:7154713.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5030406/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27668101?tool=bestpractice.com 如果临床高度怀疑,则必须进行血清 hCG 检测。典型症状和体征包括疼痛、阴道出血和闭经。血液动力学不稳定和宫颈举痛可能预示破裂或即将破裂。通过经阴道超声 (transvaginal ultrasound, TVUS) 可以确诊。如果超声检查没有发现明确的异位妊娠,但仍然存在临床疑虑,则连续的定量 hCG 检测可能有助于制定临床决策。
病史
关键危险因素包括既往异位妊娠、既往输卵管绝育手术、母亲子宫内己烯雌酚暴露、多个性伴侣、既往盆腔炎性疾病或感染(例如衣原体)、输卵管炎、怀孕时使用宫内节育器、生育能力低下、体外受精和吸烟。
症状一般在末次月经之后 6 至 8 周出现,但在非输卵管性异位妊娠病例中,发生时间可能迟很多。
通常症状包括腹痛、闭经和阴道出血,[13]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Ectopic pregnancy - United States, 1990-1992. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1995 Jan 27;44(3):46-8.http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00035709.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7823895?tool=bestpractice.com 但这些也可能与早期妊娠丢失有关,需要进一步研究以鉴别这两种疾病。在一项评估了一份标准调查问卷的研究中,疼痛期间呕吐、弥漫性腹痛、急性疼痛超过 30 分钟和闪痛均可独立促进作出异位妊娠破裂的诊断。[37]Huchon C, Panel P, Kayem G, et al. Is a standardized questionnaire useful for tubal rupture screening in patients with ectopic pregnancy? Acad Emerg Med. 2012 Jan;19(1):24-30.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22221975?tool=bestpractice.com
在异位妊娠破裂病例中有多种非典型表现。着床部位渗血可能刺激膈肌,导致肩部牵涉痛。后穹窿积血可表现为持续的便意。休克症状(包括头晕)可能表明严重出血和输卵管破裂。其他非典型症状包括右上腹疼痛和癫痫发作。
现已有多篇关于全子宫切除术后和宫颈上子宫切除术后异位妊娠的病例报告。虽然该情况极为罕见,但临床医生应意识到有发生这种情况的可能性。对于曾接受过子宫切除术但至少保留了一个卵巢的育龄妇女,如果因来源不明的腹痛而就诊,则应该实施妊娠试验。[9]Fylstra DL. Ectopic pregnancy after hysterectomy: a review and insight into etiology and prevention. Fertil Steril. 2010 Jul;94(2):431-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19393994?tool=bestpractice.com
体格检查
尽管盆腔检查是评估的重要环节,但异位妊娠未破裂时往往无特殊发现。[38]Kruszka PS, Kruszka SJ. Evaluation of acute pelvic pain in women. Am Fam Physician. 2010 Jul 15;82(2):141-7.https://www.aafp.org/afp/2010/0715/p141.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20642266?tool=bestpractice.com 有些患者可能出现宫颈举痛、附件肿块或触痛。[39]Crochet JR, Bastian LA, Chireau MV. Does this woman have an ectopic pregnancy? The rational clinical examination systematic review. JAMA. 2013 Apr 24;309(16):1722-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23613077?tool=bestpractice.com 如果在检查过程中发现子宫颈扩张,则可能提示流产。
表明可能破裂的体征包括生命体征不稳定(体位变化)、在阴道穹窿积血或腹腔内出血(例如,急腹症、肩部疼痛、宫颈压痛)。
如果出现血液动力不稳定且怀疑存在破裂,可以加快或略过后续的诊断步骤,优先进行紧急液体复苏和手术干预。
关键检查
通过尿液或血清 hCG 试验一旦证实妊娠后,使用高分辨率 TVUS 检查确定妊娠位置。也可以采用经腹超声检查,但是其敏感性不及 TVUS。如果宫内妊娠可见(无论胚胎是否存活),异位妊娠的可能性极低,但宫内外同时妊娠除外(特别是体外受精 [IVF] 治疗后)。[39]Crochet JR, Bastian LA, Chireau MV. Does this woman have an ectopic pregnancy? The rational clinical examination systematic review. JAMA. 2013 Apr 24;309(16):1722-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23613077?tool=bestpractice.com
在附件中发现带卵黄囊或胚胎或者同时带有两者的孕囊时,可通过超声确诊异位妊娠。[40]ACOG practice bulletin no. 193: tubal ectopic pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2018 Mar;131(3):e91-103.https://journals.lww.com/greenjournal/fulltext/2018/03000/ACOG_Practice_Bulletin_No__193___Tubal_Ectopic.46.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29470343?tool=bestpractice.com 并非所有的异位妊娠都可以通过超声观察到;然而,随着超声的分辨率越来越高和超声专家的增加,研究表明,TVUS 在异位妊娠的诊断中具有高度的敏感性和特异性。然而,仍有相当一部分病例(占 5-42%),无论是宫内妊娠还是异位妊娠,在超声检查时都不可见。对于这些病例,使用术语不明位置妊娠 (pregnancy of unknown location, PUL) 来描述。[41]Kirk E, Bottomley C, Bourne T. Diagnosing ectopic pregnancy and current concepts in the management of pregnancy of unknown location. Hum Reprod Update. 2014 Mar-Apr;20(2):250-61.https://academic.oup.com/humupd/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/humupd/dmt047http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24101604?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 异位妊娠的超声图像来自 Dr Melissa Fries 收集的资料 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 异位妊娠的超声图像来自 Dr Melissa Fries 收集的资料 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 异位妊娠的超声图像来自 Dr Melissa Fries 收集的资料 [Citation ends].
超声扫描中预计可探及妊娠时, hCG 的血清浓度被称为“临界 hCG 水平”。超声检查中没有检测到孕囊且血清 hCG 高于该水平时,强烈提示早期流产或异位妊娠。[40]ACOG practice bulletin no. 193: tubal ectopic pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2018 Mar;131(3):e91-103.https://journals.lww.com/greenjournal/fulltext/2018/03000/ACOG_Practice_Bulletin_No__193___Tubal_Ectopic.46.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29470343?tool=bestpractice.com 通过高分辨率经阴道扫描,有可能检测到 hCG 值远低于传统阈值的异位妊娠。[42]Sivalingam VN, Duncan WC, Kirk E, et al. Diagnosis and management of ectopic pregnancy. J Fam Plann Reprod Health Care. 2011 Oct;37(4):231-40.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3213855/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21727242?tool=bestpractice.com[43]Connolly A, Ryan DH, Stuebe AM, et al. Reevaluation of discriminatory and threshold levels for serum β-hCG in early pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2013 Jan;121(1):65-70.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23262929?tool=bestpractice.com 然而也有报道称,先前未见孕囊且血清 hCG 水平高于临界值时,在随访超声扫描中发现宫内孕囊。[40]ACOG practice bulletin no. 193: tubal ectopic pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2018 Mar;131(3):e91-103.https://journals.lww.com/greenjournal/fulltext/2018/03000/ACOG_Practice_Bulletin_No__193___Tubal_Ectopic.46.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29470343?tool=bestpractice.com 多胎妊娠的女性相较于单胎妊娠女性,hCG 水平也会更高。鉴于此,如果采用临界值诊断异位妊娠,推荐使用较为保守的高数值(例如 3500 IU/L [3500 mIU/mL]),以降低误诊的风险。[40]ACOG practice bulletin no. 193: tubal ectopic pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2018 Mar;131(3):e91-103.https://journals.lww.com/greenjournal/fulltext/2018/03000/ACOG_Practice_Bulletin_No__193___Tubal_Ectopic.46.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29470343?tool=bestpractice.com不应单独将 hCG 指标用于诊断异位妊娠。[44]Condous G, Kirk E, Lu C, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of varying discriminatory zones for the prediction of ectopic pregnancy in women with a pregnancy of unknown location. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2005 Dec;26(7):770-5.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/uog.2636/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16308901?tool=bestpractice.com
正常妊娠中血清 hCG 的预期升高情况取决于初始值。如果初始 hCG 水平 < 1500 IU/L (1500 mIU/mL),则在 2 天后预计增加 49% 或更高;然而,如果初始水平 > 3000 IU/L (> 3000 mIU/mL) 时,2 天后则预计增加 ≥ 33%。[45]Barnhart KT, Guo W, Cary MS, et al. Differences in serum human chorionic gonadotropin rise in early pregnancy by race and value at presentation. Obstet Gynecol. 2016 Sep;128(3):504-11.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4993627/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27500326?tool=bestpractice.com在 99% 的可存活宫内妊娠中,在 48 小时期间,相比于这些最低阈值,hCG 水平将大幅升高;增加率更低时应怀疑为异位妊娠或妊娠丢失。重要的是还需牢记,如果出现血清 hCG水平符合预期的升高或降低,并不能排除异位妊娠的可能性。[46]Silva C, Sammel MD, Zhou L, et al. Human chorionic gonadotropin profile for women with ectopic pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2006 Mar;107(3):605-10.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16507931?tool=bestpractice.com 在解读结果时建议谨慎,因为一项研究结果显示,在诊断为异位妊娠的妇女中,多达 27% 的 hCG 曲线类似于正常妊娠。[47]Dillon KE, Sioulas VD, Sammel MD, et al. How and when human chorionic gonadotropin curves in women with an ectopic pregnancy mimic other outcomes: differences by race and ethnicity. Fertil Steril. 2012 Oct;98(4):911-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22795684?tool=bestpractice.com
关于不明位置妊娠,在确定为初次妊娠时,应将最终诊断分类如下:[48]Barnhart K, van Mello NM, Bourne T, et al. Pregnancy of unknown location: a consensus statement of nomenclature, definitions, and outcome. Fertil Steril. 2011 Mar 1;95(3):857-66.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20947073?tool=bestpractice.com
至于持续性 PUL,应根据临床管理对这种类型的最终治疗效果进行分类:
hCG 值稳步下降(即,减少 50%)提示妊娠失败(流产)。这可能是宫内妊娠,但也可能反映一种自发消退的异位妊娠。[49]Practice Committee of American Society for Reproductive Medicine. Medical treatment of ectopic pregnancy. Fertil Steril. 2008 Nov;90(5 Suppl):S206-12.http://www.fertstert.org/article/S0015-0282(08)03510-3/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19007632?tool=bestpractice.com[50]Barnhart K, Sammel MD, Chung K, et al. Decline of serum human chorionic gonadotropin and spontaneous complete abortion: defining the normal curve. Obstet Gynecol. 2004 Nov;104(5 Pt 1):975-81.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15516387?tool=bestpractice.com 另一方面,hCG 值次优增长(即 48 小时增长<53%)或停止增长可能提示异位妊娠或妊娠丢失。[40]ACOG practice bulletin no. 193: tubal ectopic pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2018 Mar;131(3):e91-103.https://journals.lww.com/greenjournal/fulltext/2018/03000/ACOG_Practice_Bulletin_No__193___Tubal_Ectopic.46.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29470343?tool=bestpractice.com[49]Practice Committee of American Society for Reproductive Medicine. Medical treatment of ectopic pregnancy. Fertil Steril. 2008 Nov;90(5 Suppl):S206-12.http://www.fertstert.org/article/S0015-0282(08)03510-3/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19007632?tool=bestpractice.com[51]Barnhart KT. Clinical practice: ectopic pregnancy. N Engl J Med. 2009 Jul 23;361(4):379-87.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19625718?tool=bestpractice.com
辅助检查
孕酮在许多研究中被用作诊断异位妊娠的辅助手段。然而,英国皇家妇产科学院 (UK Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists) 的意见是,血清孕酮水平对于发现异位妊娠无效[52]Elson CJ, Salim R, Potdar N, et al; Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Diagnosis and management of ectopic pregnancy: Green-top Guideline No. 21. BJOG. 2016 Dec;123(13):e15-e55.https://www.rcog.org.uk/en/guidelines-research-services/guidelines/gtg21/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27813249?tool=bestpractice.com 且美国妇产科学院 (American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, ACOG) 未将其列为输卵管异位妊娠的推荐检查方法。[40]ACOG practice bulletin no. 193: tubal ectopic pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2018 Mar;131(3):e91-103.https://journals.lww.com/greenjournal/fulltext/2018/03000/ACOG_Practice_Bulletin_No__193___Tubal_Ectopic.46.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29470343?tool=bestpractice.com
孕酮水平可用于指示妊娠胚胎的存活几率。然而,孕酮水平并不足以预测妊娠位置。孕酮水平<20 nmol/L (<6.3 ng/mL) 时,妊娠失败的阳性预测值较高。[41]Kirk E, Bottomley C, Bourne T. Diagnosing ectopic pregnancy and current concepts in the management of pregnancy of unknown location. Hum Reprod Update. 2014 Mar-Apr;20(2):250-61.https://academic.oup.com/humupd/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/humupd/dmt047http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24101604?tool=bestpractice.com
正在尝试采用几种母体血清生物标志物(例如孕酮、抑制素 A、激活素 A、血管内皮细胞生长因子和妊娠相关血浆蛋白质 A)来开发一个经验证的数学模型,以精确预测异位妊娠的可能性,但该模型尚处于试验和研究阶段。[53]Rausch ME, Sammel MD, Takacs P, et al. Development of a multiple marker test for ectopic pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2011 Mar;117(3):573-82.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21343760?tool=bestpractice.com
目前虽然已有市售的尿液检测用于评估完整 hCG、β 核心片段、裂口 β 片段和 β-hCG 亚型的比例,但尚未发现这些检查在急诊科中确定异常妊娠早期有用。[54]Teixeira JL, Rabaioli P, Savaris RF. Sensitivity and specificity of a urinary screening test used in an emergency setting to detect abnormal first trimester pregnancies. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2015 Jan;212(1):58.e1-5.http://www.ajog.org/article/S0002-9378(14)00636-X/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24983677?tool=bestpractice.com