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Murphy TK, Lewin AB, Storch EA, et al. Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with tic disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2013 Dec;52(12):1341-59.

Plessen KJ, Bansal R, Peterson BS. Imaging evidence for anatomical disturbances and neuroplastic compensation in persons with Tourette syndrome. J Psychosom Res. 2009 Dec;67(6):559-73.

Pringsheim T, Marras C. Pimozide for tics in Tourette's syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009 Apr 15;(2):CD006996.

Kuo SH, Jimenez-Shahed J. Topiramate in treatment of Tourette syndrome. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2010 Jan-Feb;33(1):32-4.

摘要

Bloch MH, Panza KE, Landeros-Weisenberger A, et al. Meta-analysis: treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children with comorbid tic disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009 Sep;48(9):884-93.

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13. Murphy TK, Lewin AB, Storch EA, et al. Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with tic disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2013 Dec;52(12):1341-59.

14. Leckman J, Block M, King R, et al. Phenomenology of tics and natural history of tic disorders. Adv Neurol. 2006;99:1-16.

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15. Murphy TK, Kurlan R, Leckman J. The immunobiology of Tourette's disorder, pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcus, and related disorders: a way forward. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2010 Aug;20(4):317-31.

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18. Nespoli E, Rizzo F, Boeckers TM, et al. Addressing the complexity of Tourette's syndrome through the use of animal models. Front Neurosci. 2016 Apr 8;10:133.

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21. Worbe Y, Marrakchi-Kacem L, Lecomte S, et al. Altered structural connectivity of cortico-striato-pallido-thalamic networks in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Brain. 2015 Feb;138(Pt 2):472-82.

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23. Plessen KJ, Bansal R, Peterson BS. Imaging evidence for anatomical disturbances and neuroplastic compensation in persons with Tourette syndrome. J Psychosom Res. 2009 Dec;67(6):559-73.

24. Greene DJ, Williams Iii AC, Koller JM, et al. Brain structure in pediatric Tourette syndrome. Mol Psychiatry. 2017 Jul;22(7):972-80.

25. Zapparoli L, Tettamanti M, Porta M, et al. A tug of war: antagonistic effective connectivity patterns over the motor cortex and the severity of motor symptoms in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Eur J Neurosci. 2017 Sep;46(6):2203-13.

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26. Fernandez TV, Sanders SJ, Yurkiewicz IR, et al. Rare copy number variants in Tourette syndrome disrupt genes in histaminergic pathways and overlap with autism. Biol Psychiatry. 2012 Mar 1;71(5):392-402.

27. Rapanelli M, Pittenger C. Histamine and histamine receptors in Tourette syndrome and other neuropsychiatric conditions. Neuropharmacology. 2016 Jul;106:85-90.

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28. Yang X, Liu W, Yi M, et al. Choline acetyltransferase may contribute to the risk of Tourette syndrome: combination of family-based analysis and case-control study. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2017 Feb 14:1-6.

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29. Abdulkadir M, Londono D, Gordon D, et al. Investigation of previously implicated genetic variants in chronic tic disorders: a transmission disequilibrium test approach. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2018 Apr;268(3):301-16.

30. Hirschtritt ME, Darrow SM, Illmann C, et al. Genetic and phenotypic overlap of specific obsessive-compulsive and attention-deficit/hyperactive subtypes with Tourette syndrome. Psychol Med. 2018 Jan;48(2):279-93.

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31. Müller-Vahl KR, Loeber G, Kotsiari A, et al. Gilles de la Tourette syndrome is associated with hypermethylation of the dopamine D2 receptor gene. J Psychiatr Res. 2017 Mar;86:1-8.

32. Dalsgaard S, Waltoft BL, Leckman JF, et al. Maternal history of autoimmune disease and later development of Tourette syndrome in offspring. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2015 Jun;54(6):495-501.

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33. Murphy TK, Storch EA, Turner A, et al. Maternal history of autoimmune disease in children presenting with tics and/or obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Neuroimmunol. 2010 Dec 15;229(1-2):243-7.

34. Cardona F, Orefici G. Group A streptococcal infections and tic disorders in an Italian pediatric population. J Pediatr. 2001 Jan;138(1):71-5.

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35. Wang HC, Lau CI, Lin CC, et al. Group A streptococcal infections are associated with increased risk of pediatric neuropsychiatric disorders: a Taiwanese population-based cohort study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2016 Jul;77(7):e848-54.

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36. Swedo SE, Leckman JF, Rose NR. From research subgroup to clinical syndrome: modifying the PANDAS criteria to describe PANS (pediatric acute-onset neuropsychiatric syndrome). Pediatr Therapeut. 2012;2:113.

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37. Singer HS, Gilbert DL, Wolf DS, et al. Moving from PANDAS to CANS. J Pediatr. 2012 May;160(5):725-31.

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38. Janik P, Kalbarczyk A, Sitek M. Clinical analysis of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome based on 126 cases. Neurol Neurochir Pol. 2007 Sep-Oct;41(5):381-7.

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39. Mataix-Cols D, Isomura K, Pérez-Vigil A, et al. Familial risks of Tourette syndrome and chronic tic disorders: a population-based cohort study. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015 Aug;72(8):787-93.

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41. Khalifa N, von Knorring AL. Tourette syndrome and other tic disorders in a total population of children: clinical assessment and background. Acta Paediatr. 2005 Nov;94(11):1608-14.

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42. Leivonen S, Scharf JM, Mathews CA, et al. Parental psychopathology and Tourette syndrome/chronic tic disorder in offspring: a nationwide case-control study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2017 Apr;56(4):297-303.

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43. Browne HA, Modabbernia A, Buxbaum JD, et al. Prenatal maternal smoking and increased risk for Tourette syndrome and chronic tic disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2016 Sep;55(9):784-91.

44. Mathews CA, Bimson B, Lowe TL, et al. Association between maternal smoking and increased symptom severity in Tourette's syndrome. Am J Psychiatry. 2006 Jun;163(6):1066-73.

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45. Hirschtritt ME, Lee PC, Pauls DL, et al; Tourette Syndrome Association International Consortium for Genetics. Lifetime prevalence, age of risk, and genetic relationships of comorbid psychiatric disorders in Tourette syndrome. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015 Apr;72(4):325-33.

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48. Greenberg E, Tung ES, Gauvin C, et al. Prevalence and predictors of hair pulling disorder and excoriation disorder in Tourette syndrome. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2018 May;27(5):569-79.

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49. Stephens RJ, Chung SA, Jovanovic D, et al. Relationship between polysomnographic sleep architecture and behavior in medication-free children with TS, ADHD, TS and ADHD, and controls. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2013 Nov-Dec;34(9):688-96.

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50. Lee WT, Huang HL, Wong LC, et al. Tourette syndrome as an independent risk factor for subsequent sleep disorders in children: a nationwide population-based case-control study. Sleep. 2017 Mar 1;40(3).

51. McGuire JF, Arnold E, Park JM, et al. Living with tics: reduced impairment and improved quality of life for youth with chronic tic disorders. Psychiatry Res. 2015 Feb 28;225(3):571-9.

52. Scahill L, Woods DW, Himle MB, et al. Current controversies on the role of behavior therapy in Tourette syndrome. Mov Disord. 2013 Aug;28(9):1179-83.

53. O'Connor KP, Laverdure A, Taillon A, et al. Cognitive behavioral management of Tourette's syndrome and chronic tic disorder in medicated and unmedicated samples. Behav Res Ther. 2009 Dec;47(12):1090-5.

54. Sukhodolsky DG, Woods DW, Piacentini J, et al. Moderators and predictors of response to behavior therapy for tics in Tourette syndrome. Neurology. 2017 Mar 14;88(11):1029-36.

55. Whittington C, Pennant M, Kendall T, et al. Practitioner review: treatments for Tourette syndrome in children and young people - a systematic review. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2016 Sep;57(9):988-1004.

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56. Ricketts EJ, Gilbert DL, Zinner SH, et al. Pilot testing behavior therapy for chronic tic disorders in neurology and developmental pediatrics clinics. J Child Neurol. 2016 Mar;31(4):444-50.

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57. Dopfner M, Rothenberger A. Behavior therapy in tic disorders with co-existing ADHD. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007 Jun;16 (Suppl 1):89-99.

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58. Piacentini J, Woods DW, Scahill L, et al. Behavior therapy for children with Tourette disorder: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2010 May 19;303(19):1929-37.

59. Frank M, Cavanna AE. Behavioural treatments for Tourette syndrome: an evidence-based review. Behav Neurol. 2013;27(1):105-17.

60. Dutta N, Cavanna AE. The effectiveness of habit reversal therapy in the treatment of Tourette syndrome and other chronic tic disorders: a systematic review. Funct Neurol. 2013 Jan-Mar;28(1):7-12.

61. McGuire JF, Piacentini J, Brennan EA, et al. A meta-analysis of behavior therapy for Tourette syndrome. J Psychiatr Res. 2014 Mar;50:106-12.

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62. Weisman H, Qureshi IA, Leckman JF. Systematic review: pharmacological treatment of tic disorders - efficacy of antipsychotic and alpha-2 adrenergic agonist agents. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2013 Jul;37(6):1162-71.

63. Egolf A, Coffey BJ. Current pharmacotherapeutic approaches for the treatment of Tourette syndrome. Drugs Today (Barc). 2014 Feb;50(2):159-79.

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64. Waldon K, Hill J, Termine C, et al. Trials of pharmacological interventions for Tourette syndrome: a systematic review. Behav Neurol. 2013;26(4):265-73.

65. Du YS, Li HF, Vance A, et al. Randomized double-blind multicentre placebo-controlled clinical trial of the clonidine adhesive patch for the treatment of tic disorders. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2008 Sep;42(9):807-13.

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66. Murphy TK, Fernandez TV, Coffey BJ, et al. Extended-release guanfacine does not show a large effect on tic severity in children with chronic tic disorders. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2017 Nov;27(9):762-70.

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67. Rizzo R, Gulisano M, Cali PV, et al. Tourette syndrome and comorbid ADHD: current pharmacological treatment options. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2013 Sep;17(5):421-8.

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68. Mogwitz S, Buse J, Ehrlich S, et al. Clinical pharmacology of dopamine-modulating agents in Tourette's syndrome. Int Rev Neurobiol. 2013;112:281-349.

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69. Wijemanne S, Wu LJ, Jankovic J. Long-term efficacy and safety of fluphenazine in patients with Tourette syndrome. Mov Disord. 2014 Jan;29(1):126-30.

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70. Kenney C, Kuo SH, Jimenez-Shahed J. Tourette's syndrome. Am Fam Physician. 2008 Mar 1;77(5):651-8.

71. Preskorn SH. Changes in the product label for pimozide illustrate both the promises and the challenges of personalized medicine. J Clin Psychiatry. 2012 Sep;73(9):1191-3.

72. Yoo HK, Joung YS, Lee JS, et al. A multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of aripiprazole in children and adolescents with Tourette's disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2013 Aug;74(8):e772-80.

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73. Budman C, Coffey BJ, Shechter R, et al. Aripiprazole in children and adolescents with Tourette disorder with and without explosive outbursts. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2008 Oct;18(5):509-15.

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74. Ghanizadeh A, Haghighi A. Aripiprazole versus risperidone for treating children and adolescents with tic disorder: a randomized double blind clinical trial. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2014 Oct;45(5):596-603.

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75. Ho CS, Chiu NC, Tseng CF, et al. Clinical effectiveness of aripiprazole in short-term treatment of tic disorder in children and adolescents: a naturalistic study. Pediatr Neonatol. 2014 Feb;55(1):48-52.

76. Budman CL. The role of atypical antipsychotics for treatment of Tourette's syndrome: an overview. Drugs. 2014 Jul;74(11):1177-93.

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77. Scahill L, Leckman JF, Schultz RT, et al. A placebo-controlled trial of risperidone in Tourette syndrome. Neurology. 2003 Apr 8;60(7):1130-5.

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78. Onofrj M, Paci C, D'Andreamatteo G, et al. Olanzapine in severe Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: a 52-week double-blind cross-over study vs. low-dose pimozide. J Neurol. 2000 Jun;247(6):443-6.

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79. McCracken JT, Suddath R, Chang S, et al. Effectiveness and tolerability of open label olanzapine in children and adolescents with Tourette syndrome. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2008 Oct;18(5):501-8.

80. Pringsheim T, Marras C. Pimozide for tics in Tourette's syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009 Apr 15;(2):CD006996.

81. Fasano A, Bentivoglio AR. Tetrabenazine. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2009 Dec;10(17):2883-96.

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82. Porta M, Sassi M, Cavallazzi M, et al. Tourette's syndrome and role of tetrabenazine: review and personal experience. Clin Drug Investig. 2008;28(7):443-59.

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83. Guay DR. Tetrabenazine, a monoamine-depleting drug used in the treatment of hyperkinetic movement disorders. Am J Geriatr Pharmacother. 2010 Aug;8(4):331-73.

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84. Kuo SH, Jimenez-Shahed J. Topiramate in treatment of Tourette syndrome. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2010 Jan-Feb;33(1):32-4.

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85. Yang CS, Zhang LL, Zeng LN, et al. Topiramate for Tourette's syndrome in children: a meta-analysis. Pediatr Neurol. 2013 Nov;49(5):344-50.

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86. Pringsheim T, Doja A, Gorman D, et al. Canadian guidelines for the evidence-based treatment of tic disorders: pharmacotherapy. Can J Psychiatry. 2012 Mar;57(3):133-43.

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87. Singer HS, Wendlandt J, Krieger M, et al. Baclofen treatment in Tourette syndrome: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial. Neurology. 2001 Mar 13;56(5):599-604.

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89. Rosenberg LA, Brown J, Singer HS. Behavioral problems and severity of tics. J Clin Psychol. 1995 Nov;51(6):760-7.

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90. Osland ST, Steeves TD, Pringsheim T. Pharmacological treatment for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children with comorbid tic disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Jun 26;(6):CD007990.

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94. Scahill L, Riddle MA, King RA, et al. Fluoxetine has no marked effect on tic symptoms in patients with Tourette's syndrome: a double-blind placebo-controlled study. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 1997 Summer;7(2):75-85.

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95. Rua A, Damásio J. Tics induced by sertraline: case report and literature review. Mov Disord Clin Pract. 2014 Sep;1(3):243-4.

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97. Marras C, Andrews D, Sime E, et al. Botulinum toxin for simple motor tics: a randomized, double-blind, controlled clinical trial. Neurology. 2001 Mar 13;56(5):605-10.

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98. Kuhn J, Gründler TO, Lenartz D, et al. Deep brain stimulation for psychiatric disorders. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2010 Feb;107(7):105-13.

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102. Sachdev PS, Mohan A, Cannon E, et al. Deep brain stimulation of the antero-medial globus pallidus interna for Tourette syndrome. PLoS One. 2014 Aug 19;9(8):e104926.

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105. Welter ML, Mallet L, Houeto JL, et al. Internal pallidal and thalamic stimulation in patients with Tourette syndrome. Arch Neurol. 2008 Jul;65(7):952-7.

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106. Schrock LE, Mink JW, Woods DW, et al; Tourette Syndrome Association International Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) Database and Registry Study Group. Tourette syndrome deep brain stimulation: a review and updated recommendations. Mov Disord. 2015 Apr;30(4):448-71.

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107. Gilbert DL, Sethuraman G, Sine L, et al. Tourette’s syndrome improvement with pergolide in a randomized, double-blind, crossover trial. Neurology. 2000 Mar 28;54(6):1310-5.

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108. Lipinski JF, Sallee FR, Jackson C, Sethuraman G. Dopamine agonist treatment of Tourette disorder in children: results of an open-label trial of pergolide. Mov Disord. 1997 May;12(3):402-7.

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109. Cianchetti C, Frielta A, Piscino T, et al. Pergolide improvement in neuroleptic-resistant Tourette cases: various mechanisms causing tics. Neurol Sci. 2005 Jun;26(2):137-9.

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110. Anca MH, Giladi N, Korczyn AD. Ropinirole in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Neurology. 2004 May 11;62(9):1626-7.

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111. Durson SM, Burke JG, Reveley MA. Buspirone treatment of Tourette’s syndrome. Lancet. 1995 May 27;345(8961):1366-7.

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112. Feinberg M, Carroll BJ. Effects of dopamine agonists and antagonists in Tourette's disease. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1979 Aug;36(9):979-85.

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113. Kurlan R, Crespi G, Coffey B, et al; Pramipexole for TS Trial Investigators. A multicenter randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial of pramipexole for Tourette's syndrome. Mov Disord. 2012 May;27(6):775-8.

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114. Bloch MH, Panza KE, Yaffa A, et al. N-acetylcysteine in the treatment of pediatric Tourette syndrome: randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled add-on trial. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2016 May;26(4):327-34.

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115. Gilbert DL, Budman CL, Singer HS, et al. A D1 receptor antagonist, ecopipam, for treatment of tics in Tourette syndrome. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2014 Jan-Feb;37(1):26-30.

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116. Jankovic J, Jimenez-Shahed J, Budman C, et al. A pilot study of SD-809 (deutetrabenazine) in tics associated with Tourette syndrome. Neurology. 2016 April;86(16 Suppl):1-46.

117. Termine C, Selvini C, Rossi G, et al. Emerging treatment strategies in Tourette syndrome: what's in the pipeline? Int Rev Neurobiol. 2013;112:445-80.

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118. Gabbay V, Babb JS, Klein RG, et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of ω-3 fatty acids in Tourette's disorder. Pediatrics. 2012 Jun;129(6):e1493-500.

119. Mantovani A, Lisanby SH, Pieraccini F, et al. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) in the treatment of obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) and Tourette’s syndrome (TS). Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2006 Feb;9(1):95-100.

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122. Landeros-Weisenberger A, Mantovani A, Motlagh MG, et al. Randomized sham controlled double-blind trial of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for adults with severe Tourette Syndrome. Brain Stimul. 2015 May-Jun;8(3):574-81.

123. Kluger B, Triolo P, Jones W, et al. The therapeutic potential of cannabinoids for movement disorders. Mov Disord. 2015 Mar;30(3):313-27.

124. Müller-Vahl KR, Schneider U, Prevedel H, et al. Delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is effective in the treatment of tics in Tourette syndrome: a 6-week randomized trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003 Apr;64(4):459-65.

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125. Müller-Vahl KR, Schneider U, Koblenz A, et al. Treatment of Tourette's syndrome with Delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC): a randomized crossover trial. Pharmacopsychiatry. 2002 Mar;35(2):57-61.

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133. Debes NM, Lange T, Jessen TL, et al. Performance on Wechsler intelligence scales in children with Tourette syndrome. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2011 Mar;15(2):146-54.