作出的诊断通常都有临床依据,包括以饮食评估作为依据的病史。当临床检查正常时,如果神经发育评估正常并且人体测量指标正常的,通常不建议做诊断试验。当具有生长不良表现时,需要进行更广泛的检查(超出该检查范围)。
一般病史
应检查出生前病史,并检查出生前超声扫描的结果和可能存在的神经肌肉问题(羊水过多症、胎儿运动减少或者较为少见的关节挛缩/僵硬症)的体征。宫内发育缓慢将增加后续喂养障碍的风险,应仔细检查出生体重、后续体重升高以及线性成长的测量值(体长和头围)。
约 50% 患严重喂养障碍的转诊患儿均未满 1 岁,大多数年龄稍大的患儿均有可回溯至该年龄段的症状。[2]Rommel N, De Meyer AM, Feenstra L, et al. The complexity of feeding problems in 700 infants and young children presenting to a tertiary care institution. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2003;37:75-84.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12827010?tool=bestpractice.com应寻找更进一步的既往诊断要素,例如年龄<1 岁、早产儿、发育延迟、口咽解剖结构异常以及口咽或消化道结构异常矫正术后。
早产增加了患喂养障碍的风险,提高了接受口咽医学治疗手法治疗(放置气管插管通气、管饲、口咽吸吮)的可能性。患有喂养障碍的转诊患者中,孕龄<37 周的占三分之一。[2]Rommel N, De Meyer AM, Feenstra L, et al. The complexity of feeding problems in 700 infants and young children presenting to a tertiary care institution. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2003;37:75-84.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12827010?tool=bestpractice.com婴儿越早产,则他们就越可能有喂养问题。在一个喂养障碍研究项目中,出生时孕龄<34 周的新生儿的患病率比当地群体的患病率高 20 倍。[2]Rommel N, De Meyer AM, Feenstra L, et al. The complexity of feeding problems in 700 infants and young children presenting to a tertiary care institution. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2003;37:75-84.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12827010?tool=bestpractice.com还应引出围产期情况,例如排出胎便所用时间以及初始喂养方法(牛奶类型、喂养持续时间、喂养间隔)。
应找出既往疾病和入院治疗的证据。合并疾病可能会影响婴儿的喂养能力(例如,先天性心脏病或慢性肺疾病患者的呼吸储备欠佳)。喂养问题还可能是更复杂病变(例如脑瘫)的主诉,这些病变仅在婴儿发育成熟时才会变得明显。经常就医还可表明家中压力紧张和应对机制不充分,这可归因于/造成喂养困难。
应查找既往手术史,包括口咽和消化道异常、消化道切除术和瘘口形成。在食管裂孔疝或食管闭锁的外科矫正术后,正常胃-食管连接部的破坏会导致 GORD。食管闭锁修复的远期并发症还可包括吻合口狭窄和吞咽困难。[23]Kovesi T, Rubin S. Long-term complications of congenital esophageal atresia and/or tracheoesophageal fistula. Chest. 2004;126:915-925.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15364774?tool=bestpractice.com在出生体重极低的婴儿群体队列中,接受坏死性小肠结肠炎治疗的患儿中,有 1.1%在肠道切除术后发现患有短肠综合征。[24]Cole CR, Hansen NI, Higgins RD, et al. Very low birth weight preterm infants with surgical short bowel syndrome: incidence, morbidity and mortality, and growth outcomes at 18 to 22 months. Pediatrics. 2008;122:e573-e582.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2848527/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18762491?tool=bestpractice.com
应探寻过敏症或喂养问题的家族史。家族模式可见于幽门狭窄和乳糜泻。[25]Rudolph CD, Mazur LJ, Liptak GS, et al. Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32(suppl 2):S1-S31.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2001/00002/Guidelines_for_Evaluation_and_Treatment_of.1.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11525610?tool=bestpractice.com特应性过敏家庭 [尤其是对牛奶蛋白过敏 (cows' milk protein allergy, CMPA) 的家庭] 的孩子更可能受到 CMPA 和嗜酸性粒细胞性食管炎等疾病的累及。[25]Rudolph CD, Mazur LJ, Liptak GS, et al. Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32(suppl 2):S1-S31.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2001/00002/Guidelines_for_Evaluation_and_Treatment_of.1.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11525610?tool=bestpractice.com
单纯性喂养障碍最初并不会有生长不良的表现。非常重要的是,应该检查自出生以来的生长情况并将此与任何喂养变化关联起来考虑。例如,对于乳糜泻患者,断奶后可能体重无增长。当热量摄入足够却生长不良时,需要进行更广泛的检查(超出该检查范围)。
喂养史和喂养观察
应追问详细的喂养病史,最好能获得儿科营养师的帮助。应确认自出生以来的饮食、喂养量(探寻摄入过多或不足的情况、配方食品制备上的错误)、喂养类型(包括配方的变化和固体辅食的引入)、喂养间隔时间以及喂养所需时间。应确认较年长婴儿的断奶年龄和一日内摄入的固体辅食量,因为在该年龄组中,固体辅食量摄入下降与生长不良相关。[26]Emond A, Drewett R, Blair P, et al. Postnatal factors associated with failure to thrive in term infants in the Avon longitudinal study of parents and children. Arch Dis Child. 2007;92:115-119.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16905563?tool=bestpractice.com
务必获得单纯性反流和呕吐(与喂养、呕吐量、剧烈程度、呕吐物含胆汁有关的时间)、腹痛、腹胀或绞痛、呼吸系统异常(慢性咳嗽、复发性喘息、喘鸣)、喂养期间姿势改变(颈部弯曲、头偏向一侧、表情痛苦)以及患先天性过敏症(皮疹、鼻炎、腹泻和便秘)证据有关的详细病史。当母乳喂养是唯一喂养模式时,应找出关于含住乳头、意识到供奶、喂养所用时间以及乳头疼痛的详细信息。
报告显示,67% 的 4 个月以下正常婴儿会出现反流,[9]Arvedson JC. Assessment of pediatric dysphagia and feeding disorders: clinical and instrumental approaches. Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2008;14:118-127.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18646015?tool=bestpractice.com[10]Gremse DA. GERD in the pediatric patient: management considerations. MedGenMed. 2004;6:13.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1395762/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15266239?tool=bestpractice.com 占儿科会诊人数的 6.1%。[27]Infante Pina D, Badia Llach X, Arino-Armengol B, et al. Prevalence and dietetic management of mild gastrointestinal disorders in milk-fed infants. World J Gastroenterol. 2008;14:248-254.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18186563?tool=bestpractice.com未见其他症状的单纯性反流为生理现象,无需进行检查或治疗。[10]Gremse DA. GERD in the pediatric patient: management considerations. MedGenMed. 2004;6:13.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1395762/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15266239?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Rudolph CD, Mazur LJ, Liptak GS, et al. Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32(suppl 2):S1-S31.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2001/00002/Guidelines_for_Evaluation_and_Treatment_of.1.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11525610?tool=bestpractice.com 但是,许多看护者将其视为异常,并且有 24% 的人会在正常婴儿访视期间提出这个顾虑。[28]Campanozzi A, Boccia G, Pensabene L, et al. Prevalence and natural history of gastroesophageal reflux: pediatric prospective survey. Pediatrics. 2009;123:779-783.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19255002?tool=bestpractice.com[29]Hyman PE, Milla PJ, Benninga MA, et al. Childhood functional gastrointestinal disorders: neonate/toddler. Gastroenterology. 2006;130:1519-1526.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16678565?tool=bestpractice.com 当一天发生多次反流、反流量大或伴有易怒时,看护者更可能产生顾虑。[29]Hyman PE, Milla PJ, Benninga MA, et al. Childhood functional gastrointestinal disorders: neonate/toddler. Gastroenterology. 2006;130:1519-1526.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16678565?tool=bestpractice.com
无生长不良情况且体格检查正常时,反复呕吐是非复杂性GORD的常见症状。[25]Rudolph CD, Mazur LJ, Liptak GS, et al. Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32(suppl 2):S1-S31.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2001/00002/Guidelines_for_Evaluation_and_Treatment_of.1.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11525610?tool=bestpractice.com在 GORD 和 CMPA 中都可发现与腹部疼痛、绞痛以及便秘相关的呕吐。足月儿胆汁性呕吐提示上消化道梗阻(通常需要外科干预)。但是,在建立早产儿肠道喂养期间,常会发现这种情况,通常会对该群体进行医学处理。喷射样非胆汁呕吐是胃出口阻塞(例如,幽门狭窄)的特征。如果先前状况良好的儿童突发呕吐,则可能是其他病情,尤其是脑膜炎和尿路感染等感染,应予以慎重考虑并首先排除。
腹绞痛定义为阵发性易激惹情况或持续哭泣>3 小时/每天,每周发病时间>3 天。[29]Hyman PE, Milla PJ, Benninga MA, et al. Childhood functional gastrointestinal disorders: neonate/toddler. Gastroenterology. 2006;130:1519-1526.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16678565?tool=bestpractice.com腹绞痛常见于 GORD 和牛奶蛋白过敏情况。报告称,具有腹绞痛症状的婴儿表现为更多的杂乱喂养行为、规律吮吸较少和喂养期间反应度较低。[30]Miller-Loncar C, Bigsby R, High P, et al. Infant colic and feeding difficulties. Arch Dis Child. 2004;89:908-912.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15383432?tool=bestpractice.com通常患腹绞痛的婴儿还患有 GORD。[30]Miller-Loncar C, Bigsby R, High P, et al. Infant colic and feeding difficulties. Arch Dis Child. 2004;89:908-912.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15383432?tool=bestpractice.com
用餐时咳嗽或干呕可能提示存在吞咽困难,也可能存在误吸。[9]Arvedson JC. Assessment of pediatric dysphagia and feeding disorders: clinical and instrumental approaches. Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2008;14:118-127.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18646015?tool=bestpractice.com即使没有这些症状,慢性误吸也可导致复发性肺炎;当婴儿神级系统受损时,此情况尤其常见。[3]Bernard-Bonnin AC. Feeding problems of infants and toddlers. Can Fam Physician. 2006;52:1247-1251.http://www.cfp.ca/content/52/10/1247.full.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17279184?tool=bestpractice.com[9]Arvedson JC. Assessment of pediatric dysphagia and feeding disorders: clinical and instrumental approaches. Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2008;14:118-127.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18646015?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Rudolph CD, Mazur LJ, Liptak GS, et al. Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32(suppl 2):S1-S31.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2001/00002/Guidelines_for_Evaluation_and_Treatment_of.1.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11525610?tool=bestpractice.com 复发性义膜性喉炎、喘鸣或哭喊时声嘶均可能与胃酸反流相关。[25]Rudolph CD, Mazur LJ, Liptak GS, et al. Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32(suppl 2):S1-S31.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2001/00002/Guidelines_for_Evaluation_and_Treatment_of.1.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11525610?tool=bestpractice.comGORD 症状常见于患复发性喘息的婴儿,在大龄儿童中,胃酸反流治疗可降低哮鸣发作的次数,并可减少支气管扩张药的使用。[25]Rudolph CD, Mazur LJ, Liptak GS, et al. Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32(suppl 2):S1-S31.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2001/00002/Guidelines_for_Evaluation_and_Treatment_of.1.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11525610?tool=bestpractice.com
必须观察整个 20 分钟内的喂养情况,以获得有关婴儿喂养模式的准确印象。[9]Arvedson JC. Assessment of pediatric dysphagia and feeding disorders: clinical and instrumental approaches. Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2008;14:118-127.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18646015?tool=bestpractice.com应观察看护者与婴儿之间的互动,寻找积极互动(保持眼神接触、表扬好的行为、相互发声呼应、回应饱腹感提示)和负面的互动(强制喂养、贿赂、转移注意力)。[3]Bernard-Bonnin AC. Feeding problems of infants and toddlers. Can Fam Physician. 2006;52:1247-1251.http://www.cfp.ca/content/52/10/1247.full.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17279184?tool=bestpractice.com
行为和社会问题
社会生活史(包括任何家庭压力、抑郁和应对机制)将有助于初始诊断和优化治疗。一项大型的英国研究发现,生长不良与社会阶层或家长教育之间并无相关性。[26]Emond A, Drewett R, Blair P, et al. Postnatal factors associated with failure to thrive in term infants in the Avon longitudinal study of parents and children. Arch Dis Child. 2007;92:115-119.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16905563?tool=bestpractice.com
80% 的喂养障碍都含有行为方面的构成因素,并且这方面的因素是造成 10% 的病例患喂养障碍的主要原因。[2]Rommel N, De Meyer AM, Feenstra L, et al. The complexity of feeding problems in 700 infants and young children presenting to a tertiary care institution. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2003;37:75-84.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12827010?tool=bestpractice.com[8]Burklow KA, Phelps AN, Schultz JR, et al. Classifying complex paediatric feeding disorders. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1998;27:143-147.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9702643?tool=bestpractice.com
诊断主要由病史(食物厌恶、拒食、用餐时存在紧张压力)中得出。在对患喂养障碍的婴儿进行的初始评估中,用于记录这些症状的喂养日记可能极为有用。
通过观察 20 分钟期间的喂养过程来评估看护者与婴儿的互动,会为诊断提供有力支持。积极的互动包括接受食物、良好的眼神接触和表扬等正面强化措施。消极的互动包括在进餐时试图强迫婴儿喂养、哄骗婴儿或者使用转移注意力的技巧。[6]Ramsay M, Gisel E, Boutry M. Non-organic failure to thrive: growth failure secondary to feeding-skills disorder. Dev Med Child Neurol.1993;35:285-297.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8335143?tool=bestpractice.com[31]Piazza CC. Feeding disorders and behaviour: what have we learned? Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2008;14:174-181.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18646017?tool=bestpractice.com 还应评估婴儿的整体反应和性情。[9]Arvedson JC. Assessment of pediatric dysphagia and feeding disorders: clinical and instrumental approaches. Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2008;14:118-127.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18646015?tool=bestpractice.com正常的婴儿平均每天最多哭 2 个小时,喂养日记可帮助确定易激惹状态的时长以及与喂养存在的任何时间关系。[25]Rudolph CD, Mazur LJ, Liptak GS, et al. Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32(suppl 2):S1-S31.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2001/00002/Guidelines_for_Evaluation_and_Treatment_of.1.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11525610?tool=bestpractice.com
全面检查
应在相应图表上仔细绘出体重、身长和头围的测量值,并与自出生以来的生长进行比较。应在 20 分钟期间观察婴儿喂养,以评估婴儿与看护者的互动和对各种提示的反应、婴儿的机敏水平、呼吸-吮吸-吞咽之间的协调以及喂养质量(时长、质量、相关症状)。必须进行彻底检查以排除并发的慢性疾病和先天性综合征的体征。在对患喂养障碍的婴儿进行的初始评估中,完整的神经发育评估很重要。
应评估婴儿脸和颌、唇和腭的对称度,以及非营养性吮吸和喂养吮吸的节律和强度,以排除皮尔罗宾序列征等颅面畸形。[9]Arvedson JC. Assessment of pediatric dysphagia and feeding disorders: clinical and instrumental approaches. Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2008;14:118-127.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18646015?tool=bestpractice.com张着口的姿势可能反映鼻或咽部梗阻。[9]Arvedson JC. Assessment of pediatric dysphagia and feeding disorders: clinical and instrumental approaches. Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2008;14:118-127.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18646015?tool=bestpractice.com如果听到口呼吸或打鼾样(打呼噜)呼吸,则应考虑扁桃体肥大。[9]Arvedson JC. Assessment of pediatric dysphagia and feeding disorders: clinical and instrumental approaches. Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2008;14:118-127.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18646015?tool=bestpractice.com舌系带过短(结舌)的存在可以解释为何母乳喂养有困难。[32]Ballard JL, Auer CE, Khoury JC. Ankyloglossia: assessment, incidence, and effect of frenuloplasty on the breastfeeding dyad. Pediatrics. 2002;110:e63.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/110/5/e63.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12415069?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Geddes DT, Langton DB, Gollow I, et al. Frenulotomy for breastfeeding infants with ankyloglossia: effect on milk removal and sucking mechanism as imaged by ultrasound. Pediatrics. 2008;122:e188-e194.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18573859?tool=bestpractice.com[34]Kumar M, Kalke E. Tongue-tie, breastfeeding difficulties and the role of frenotomy. Acta Paediatr. 2012;101:687-689.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22404175?tool=bestpractice.com
神经发育评估具有特别的重要性。在高达 80% 的神经发育延迟患儿中均可见到喂养障碍情况。[2]Rommel N, De Meyer AM, Feenstra L, et al. The complexity of feeding problems in 700 infants and young children presenting to a tertiary care institution. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2003;37:75-84.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12827010?tool=bestpractice.com未能达到喂养里程碑可能是更全面发育延迟的表现体征。应注意婴儿的姿势、喂养时的体位、躯干张力以及运动。流涎可能是吞咽困难的体征。婴儿对感觉性刺激的响应还可以给出有关发育问题的更多线索。[9]Arvedson JC. Assessment of pediatric dysphagia and feeding disorders: clinical and instrumental approaches. Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2008;14:118-127.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18646015?tool=bestpractice.com
休息时的增加呼吸频率和增加呼吸功会损害喂养能力。[9]Arvedson JC. Assessment of pediatric dysphagia and feeding disorders: clinical and instrumental approaches. Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2008;14:118-127.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18646015?tool=bestpractice.com在患有严重支气管肺发育不良的婴儿中,可存在协调欠佳、吮吸无力和阵发快速吮吸的情况。[35]Mizuno K, Nishida Y, Taki M, et al. Infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia suckle with weak pressures to maintain breathing during feeding. Pediatrics. 2007;120:e1035-e1042.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17893188?tool=bestpractice.com喂养时出现的呼吸暂停和心动过缓既可能反映呼吸-吮吸-吞咽协调的核心问题,又有可能反映 GORD 问题。[9]Arvedson JC. Assessment of pediatric dysphagia and feeding disorders: clinical and instrumental approaches. Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2008;14:118-127.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18646015?tool=bestpractice.com
检查
单纯性过量喂养
胃食管反流病
虽然症状具有非特异性并且不可靠,但是 GORD 通常仍是该年龄组的临床诊断。[25]Rudolph CD, Mazur LJ, Liptak GS, et al. Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32(suppl 2):S1-S31.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2001/00002/Guidelines_for_Evaluation_and_Treatment_of.1.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11525610?tool=bestpractice.com如果体重增加不足,则可在排除发育迟滞原因后,考虑上消化道造影检查。这项检查对于诊断 GORD 并不可靠;然而,它可用于识别可能产生类似症状的解剖结构异常。[25]Rudolph CD, Mazur LJ, Liptak GS, et al. Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32(suppl 2):S1-S31.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2001/00002/Guidelines_for_Evaluation_and_Treatment_of.1.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11525610?tool=bestpractice.com[36]American Academy on Pediatric Dentistry Clinical Affairs Committee; American Academy on Pediatric Dentistry Council on Clinical Affairs. Policy on management of patients cleft lip/palate and other craniofacial anomalies. Pediatr Dent. 2008;30(7 suppl):238-239.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19216429?tool=bestpractice.com如果持续存在体重不增长,应当考虑转诊进行上消化道内镜和活检。[37]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease in children and young people: diagnosis and management. January 2015. http://www.nice.org.uk/ (last accessed 5 July 2017).http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng1
核素闪烁显像可显示胃酸反流和非酸反流,并提供有关胃排空的信息(在 GORD 中可能会延迟)。但是,缺乏特定年龄段的标准数据,限制了它在婴幼儿群体中的应用。[25]Rudolph CD, Mazur LJ, Liptak GS, et al. Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32(suppl 2):S1-S31.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2001/00002/Guidelines_for_Evaluation_and_Treatment_of.1.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11525610?tool=bestpractice.com
GORD 可能与误吸相关,尤其是当患者具有相关神经或神经肌肉问题时。在这些患者中应当考虑试管 pH 值检查或联合试管 pH 值和阻抗监测。[37]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease in children and young people: diagnosis and management. January 2015. http://www.nice.org.uk/ (last accessed 5 July 2017).http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng1
需要外科干预的解剖学异常
如果在检查时检测到颅面异常,或者存在流涎或窒息病史,或者存在复发性肺部感染(考虑可能误吸或气管食管瘘),则应考虑这些因素。在胸部 X 射线和上消化道造影研究中可诊断出可疑的误吸。[25]Rudolph CD, Mazur LJ, Liptak GS, et al. Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32(suppl 2):S1-S31.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2001/00002/Guidelines_for_Evaluation_and_Treatment_of.1.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11525610?tool=bestpractice.com支气管镜检查并在灌洗中发现富脂肺泡巨噬细胞,可支持误吸的诊断,但是该诊断通常专用于对其诊断存疑并且上消化道造影阴性的情况。[25]Rudolph CD, Mazur LJ, Liptak GS, et al. Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32(suppl 2):S1-S31.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2001/00002/Guidelines_for_Evaluation_and_Treatment_of.1.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11525610?tool=bestpractice.com
胆汁性呕吐或喷射性呕吐提示上消化道梗阻,在与外科同事讨论后,可进行腹部X 线、腹部超声或 CT检查。外科医生可请求 CT 扫描,但是这并非诊断喂养障碍的常规检查手段。
神经或神经肌肉类疾病容易诱发喂养障碍
根据神经科检查异常和支持性的家族病史或围产期病史,通常可做出神经或神经肌肉障碍的诊断。初始评估应在专门的言语和语言治疗师以及营养师帮助下进行,并可能需要上消化道造影研究和电视荧光透视来评估吞咽功能。结合感官试验的纤维内窥镜评估 (FESST) 可用于确定吞咽功能,尤其吞咽动作的咽部阶段有关视频,但是因为内窥镜穿鼻而过,所以不会提供吞咽的口腔阶段的视频。 [9]Arvedson JC. Assessment of pediatric dysphagia and feeding disorders: clinical and instrumental approaches. Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2008;14:118-127.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18646015?tool=bestpractice.com[17]Delaney AL, Arvedson JC. Development of swallowing and feeding: prenatal through first year of life. Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2008;14:105-117.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18646020?tool=bestpractice.com FESST 无辐射且一般耐受性强,并可按需反复运用。这是极为专业的试验,通常只有在三级中心才能进行。
在脑瘫患儿中,存在广泛的一系列喂养问题,包括 GORD (56%)、吞咽困难 (27%) 以及厌恶拒食喂养行为 (18%)。[38]Schwarz SM, Corredor J, Fisher-Medina J, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of feeding disorders in children with developmental difficulties. Pediatrics. 2001;108:671-676.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11533334?tool=bestpractice.comGORD 的诊断为临床性,而且抑酸治疗试验有效。但是,如果症状严重,则建议进一步采取食管 pH监测、上消化道造影以及核素闪烁显像检查,因为这些婴儿中有一部分将继续需要接受胃造瘘术,并可能接受胃底折叠术。[25]Rudolph CD, Mazur LJ, Liptak GS, et al. Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32(suppl 2):S1-S31.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2001/00002/Guidelines_for_Evaluation_and_Treatment_of.1.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11525610?tool=bestpractice.com[38]Schwarz SM, Corredor J, Fisher-Medina J, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of feeding disorders in children with developmental difficulties. Pediatrics. 2001;108:671-676.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11533334?tool=bestpractice.com 患神经功能缺损和 GORD 的婴儿尤其存在隐性误吸事件的风险,并应考虑 CXR 和支气管镜检查。[3]Bernard-Bonnin AC. Feeding problems of infants and toddlers. Can Fam Physician. 2006;52:1247-1251.http://www.cfp.ca/content/52/10/1247.full.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17279184?tool=bestpractice.com[9]Arvedson JC. Assessment of pediatric dysphagia and feeding disorders: clinical and instrumental approaches. Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2008;14:118-127.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18646015?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Rudolph CD, Mazur LJ, Liptak GS, et al. Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32(suppl 2):S1-S31.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2001/00002/Guidelines_for_Evaluation_and_Treatment_of.1.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11525610?tool=bestpractice.com
牛奶蛋白过敏 (CMPA)
根据明显家族史和支持性症状(例如皮疹或鼻炎),可做出 CMPA 的诊断。特异性针对牛奶蛋白的放射过敏原吸附试验( RAST 测定)可支持对 CMPA 的诊断,但是进行低过敏原进食试验会更简单,因为只要诊断正确,症状通常就会在数日内显著改善。[20]Vandenplas Y, Koletzko S, Isolauri E, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of cows' milk protein allergy in infants. Arch Dis Child. 2007;97:902-908. [Errata in: Arch Dis Child. 2007;92:908; Arch Dis Child. 2008;93:93.]http://adc.bmj.com/content/92/10/902.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17895338?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Rudolph CD, Mazur LJ, Liptak GS, et al. Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32(suppl 2):S1-S31.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2001/00002/Guidelines_for_Evaluation_and_Treatment_of.1.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11525610?tool=bestpractice.com 如果通过调整食谱仍然无法改善症状,则应当重新考虑原诊断。
乳糖不耐受
乳糜泻
对家族史阳性并且在断奶开始后未能增重的患儿,要怀疑此病。应通过组织型谷氨酰胺转移酶测定 (TTG) 来排查有症状的婴儿,并将阳性者转诊接受小肠活检。通常不再建议进行抗肌内膜和抗麦胶蛋白抗体测定。[39]Hill ID, Dirks MH, Liptak GS, et al. Guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of celiac disease in children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2005;40:1-19.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2005/01000/Guideline_for_the_Diagnosis_and_Treatment_of.1.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15625418?tool=bestpractice.com
其他专门检查
其他试验(例如遗传学评估或超声心动图)将根据可疑的临床综合征确定(超过该检查范围)。许多有复杂需求的患者(例如唇裂和腭裂患者)自出生起就一直接受多学科团队的检查评估。[40]Bessell A, Hooper L, Shaw WC, et al. Feeding interventions for growth and development in infants with cleft lip, cleft palate or cleft lip and palate. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;(2):CD003315.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD003315.pub3/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21328261?tool=bestpractice.com