对于 HAP 治疗,及时、正确且充分的抗生素治疗至关重要。[2]Iregui M, Ward S, Sherman G, et al. Clinical importance of delays in the initiation of appropriate antibiotic treatment for ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest. 2002;122:262-268.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1080761http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12114368?tool=bestpractice.com[61]Clec'h C, Timsit JF, De Lassence A, et al. Efficacy of adequate early antibiotic therapy in ventilator-associated pneumonia: influence of disease severity. Intensive Care Med. 2004;30:1327-1333.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15197443?tool=bestpractice.com[62]Muscedere JG, Shorr AF, Jiang X, et al. The adequacy of timely empiric antibiotic therapy for ventilator-associated pneumonia: an important determinant of outcome. J Crit Care. 2012;27:322.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22137378?tool=bestpractice.com医院死亡率:有质量差的证据表明,接受不充分抗菌治疗的血流感染患者的住院死亡率在统计学上高于接受充分抗菌治疗的血流感染患者(分别为 61.9% 和 28.4%;相对危险度 2.18;95%CI 为 1.77-2.69;P<0.001)。有研究发现,针对单个微生物的不充分抗菌治疗率以及与其相关的医院死亡率(斯皮尔曼相关系数 = 0.8287;P = 0.006)之间的相关性具有统计学意义。[63]Ibrahim EH, Sherman G, Ward S, et al. The influence of inadequate antimicrobial treatment of bloodstream infections on patient outcomes in the ICU setting. Chest. 2000;118:146-155.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1078999http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10893372?tool=bestpractice.com低质量的观察性(队列)研究或者受试者<200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。 具体方案取决于是否存在多重耐药 (MDR) 病原菌的危险因素。这些危险因素包括:[8]American Thoracic Society; Infectious Diseases Society of America. Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;171:388-416.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/rccm.200405-644ST#.UkWJW9KsjTohttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15699079?tool=bestpractice.com
近 90 天内接受过抗生素治疗
呼吸机相关性肺炎 (VAP) 伴发脓毒性休克
发生 VAP 前存在急性呼吸窘迫综合征
目前住院 5 天及以上
VAP 发病前进行急性肾脏替代治疗。
如果存在以上任一危险因素,则适合使用广谱抗生素进行联合治疗。[64]Ibrahim EH, Ward S, Sherman G, et al. Experience with a clinical guideline for the treatment of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care Med. 2001;29:1109-1115.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11395584?tool=bestpractice.com
在医院内使用任何抗生素时都应谨慎,因为它会影响耐药菌株的产生,尤其是在重症监护病房中。由于过度使用 β-内酰胺类或喹诺酮类药物,会出现 MDR 和革兰阴性病原菌暴发的情况。[65]Manzur A, Tubau F, Pujol M, et al. Nosocomial outbreak due to extended-spectrum-beta-lactamase- producing Enterobacter cloacae in a cardiothoracic intensive care unit. J Clin Microbiol. 2007;45:2365-2369.http://jcm.asm.org/content/45/8/2365.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17581932?tool=bestpractice.com 总体来说,如果优先使用任何一种抗菌剂,则都可能出现耐药性。一项研究报道了长期使用碳青霉烯类抗生素(20 天)和甲磺酸粘菌素(13 天)后的暴发情况。[66]Mentzelopoulos SD, Pratikaki M, Platsouka E, et al. Prolonged use of carbapenems and colistin predisposes to ventilator-associated pneumonia by pandrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Intensive Care Med. 2007;33:1524-1532.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17549457?tool=bestpractice.com
新诊断为 HAP 的患者不需要预先指定抗生素治疗方案,但建议这样做,因为这样可确保患者得到充足治疗,尤其是在医生有机会降低死亡率的治疗早期。[2]Iregui M, Ward S, Sherman G, et al. Clinical importance of delays in the initiation of appropriate antibiotic treatment for ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest. 2002;122:262-268.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1080761http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12114368?tool=bestpractice.com[54]Singh N, Rogers P, Atwood CW, et al. Short-course empiric antibiotic therapy for patients with pulmonary infiltrates in the intensive care unit: a proposed solution for indiscriminate antibiotic prescription. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;162:505-511.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/ajrccm.162.2.9909095#.UkWYE9KsjTohttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10934078?tool=bestpractice.com 治疗方案应包含一系列可供选择的药物,随后应采用降级方案,否则耐药性可能增强。[8]American Thoracic Society; Infectious Diseases Society of America. Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;171:388-416.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/rccm.200405-644ST#.UkWJW9KsjTohttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15699079?tool=bestpractice.com[54]Singh N, Rogers P, Atwood CW, et al. Short-course empiric antibiotic therapy for patients with pulmonary infiltrates in the intensive care unit: a proposed solution for indiscriminate antibiotic prescription. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;162:505-511.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/ajrccm.162.2.9909095#.UkWYE9KsjTohttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10934078?tool=bestpractice.com
经验性抗生素治疗
经验性抗生素治疗方案应始终适应当地的耐药模式;应制定抗菌谱。[64]Ibrahim EH, Ward S, Sherman G, et al. Experience with a clinical guideline for the treatment of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care Med. 2001;29:1109-1115.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11395584?tool=bestpractice.com
如果患者没有感染多重耐药病原菌的危险因素,则肺炎的致病性病原体可能是肺炎链球菌、流感嗜血杆菌、甲氧西林敏感金黄色葡萄球菌 (MSSA) 或抗生素敏感型肠道革兰氏阴性杆菌(例如大肠杆菌、肺炎克雷伯杆菌、肠杆菌属、变形杆菌属或粘质沙雷氏菌)。覆盖铜绿假单胞菌的单药治疗包括:头孢吡肟、头孢他啶、亚胺培南/西司他丁、美罗培南、左氧氟沙星或哌拉西林/他唑巴坦。[1]Kalil AC, Metersky ML, Klompas M, et al. Management of adults with hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia: 2016 clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Thoracic Society. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;63:e61-e111.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/63/5/e61.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27418577?tool=bestpractice.com[67]Franzetti F, Antonelli M, Bassetti M, et al. Consensus document on controversial issues for the treatment of hospital-associated pneumonia. Int J Infect Dis. 2010;14 Suppl 4:S55-S65.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20863734?tool=bestpractice.com[68]Heyland DK, Dodek P, Muscedere J, et al. Randomized trial of combination versus monotherapy for the empiric treatment of suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care Med. 2008;36:737-744.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18091545?tool=bestpractice.com 注意,此清单中不包含氨基糖苷类(药物),因为尽管该类药物可覆盖引起 HAP/VAP 的铜绿假单胞菌,但其风险大于获益。[69]Kim JW, Chung J, Choi SH, et al. Early use of imipenem/cilastatin and vancomycin followed by de-escalation versus conventional antimicrobials without de-escalation for patients with hospital-acquired pneumonia in a medical ICU: a randomized clinical trial. Crit Care. 2012;16:R28.http://ccforum.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/cc11197http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22336530?tool=bestpractice.com
如果患者不具有多重耐药病原菌的危险因素,则致病性病原体可能为铜绿假单胞菌、肺炎克雷伯杆菌(超广谱 β-内酰胺酶 [ESBL] 菌株)、不动杆菌属、耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌或嗜肺军团菌。由以上一种病原菌引发的 HAP /呼吸机相关性肺炎 (VAP) 具有较高的死亡率。[70]Kett DH, Cano E, Quartin AA, et al. Implementation of guidelines for management of possible multidrug-resistant pneumonia in intensive care: an observational, multicentre cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2011;11:181-189.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21256086?tool=bestpractice.com 铜绿假单胞菌的危险因素包括:高质量革兰染色的革兰阴性杆菌,以及结构性肺病。如果存在其中一种因素,或者如果患者接受机械插管和通气,或者出现脓毒性休克,则应针对铜绿假单胞菌进行联合治疗。对于可能携带多重耐药病原菌的患者,需使用以下药物进行联合治疗:头孢菌素(例如头孢吡肟、头孢他啶)、碳青霉烯(例如亚胺培南/西司他丁、美罗培南)、β-内酰胺/β-内酰胺酶抑制剂(例如哌拉西林/他唑巴坦)或单酰胺菌素(例如氨曲南);加喹诺酮(例如环丙沙星、左氧氟沙星)或氨基糖苷类药物(例如阿卡米星、庆大霉素、妥布霉素);加利奈唑胺或万古霉素(或替换为特拉万星)。[8]American Thoracic Society; Infectious Diseases Society of America. Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;171:388-416.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/rccm.200405-644ST#.UkWJW9KsjTohttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15699079?tool=bestpractice.com[68]Heyland DK, Dodek P, Muscedere J, et al. Randomized trial of combination versus monotherapy for the empiric treatment of suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care Med. 2008;36:737-744.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18091545?tool=bestpractice.com
如果怀疑假单胞菌是致病性病原体,应根据经验使用 2 种作用机制不同的抗生素,治疗方案可以是包含抗假单胞菌 β-内酰胺、碳青霉烯、喹诺酮和氨基糖苷类药物的各种组合。可使用亚胺培南/西司他丁或美罗培南(碳青霉烯类抗生素),但不应使用厄他培南,因为它并未覆盖铜绿假单胞菌,并且仅获批用于社区获得性肺炎。氨基糖苷类药物能迅速杀死革兰氏阴性菌,但可能导致肾毒性或耳毒性。妥布霉素的肺部穿透力略优于庆大霉素,可作为一种吸入剂,但这是一种新兴治疗方法。已有研究证实喹诺酮类药物有效,而环丙沙星的覆盖范围相对更窄,但铜绿假单胞菌对该药的耐药性逐年增强。也有报告显示喹诺酮类药物可导致艰难梭菌结肠炎。氨基糖苷类和喹诺酮类药物都是浓度依赖性的抗菌药物,基于此特征可偶尔高剂量使用;时间依赖性抗菌药物则完全相反(例如β-内酰胺类药物),此类药物的用药剂量应保持在最低抑菌浓度 (MIC) 水平之上。顺便补充,一项比较替加环素和亚培安南/西司他丁的研究发现,替加环素类药物对 HAP 患者的疗效并不逊色,但对于 VAP 患者的效果更差。[71]Freire AT, Melnyk V, Kim MJ, et al. Comparison of tigecycline with imipenem/cilastatin for the treatment of hospital-acquired pneumonia. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2010;68:140-151.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20846586?tool=bestpractice.com 替加环素当前已获批用于社区获得性肺炎,而不是 HAP。替加环素的包装盒上现在标有风险警告,指出只有在替代药物不适用的情况下才使用它。因为使用替加环素会增加死亡率(0.6%;95% CI 为 0.1~1.2)。对于 VAP 患者,使用替加环素的死亡率为 50.0%,而对照组为 7.7%。[72]McGovern PC, Wible M, El-Tahtawy A, et al. All-cause mortality imbalance in the tigecycline phase 3 and 4 clinical trials. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2013 May;41(5):463-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23537581?tool=bestpractice.com 最终,方案应取决于当地抗菌谱。
如果患者有耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌感染的风险,则应添加万古霉素或利奈唑胺(即患者将服用 3 种抗生素)。耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌的危险因素包括:既往几日内使用过抗菌药物,收入重症监护病房(其中 >20% 的金黄色葡萄球菌分离株呈耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌阳性 [或百分比未知]),以及死亡风险较高。数据表明,利奈唑胺和万古霉素具有相似疗效。随访数据不明确,提示利奈唑胺和万古霉素疗效相当,或利奈唑胺效果更佳。[73]Rubinstein E, Cammarata S, Oliphant T, et al. Linezolid (PNU-100766) versus vancomycin in the treatment of hospitalized patients with nosocomial pneumonia: a randomized, double-blind, multicenter study. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;32:402-412.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/32/3/402.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11170948?tool=bestpractice.com[74]Wunderink RG, Cammarata SK, Oliphant TH. Continuation of a randomized, double-blind, multicenter study of linezolid versus vancomycin in the treatment of patients with nosocomial pneumonia. Clin Ther. 2003;25:980-992.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12852712?tool=bestpractice.com[75]Kollef MH, Rello J, Cammarata SK, et al. Clinical cure and survival in Gram-positive ventilator-associated pneumonia: retrospective analysis of two double-blind studies comparing linezolid with vancomycin. Intensive Care Med. 2004;30:388-394.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14714107?tool=bestpractice.com[76]Kalil AC, Murthy MH, Hermsen ED, et al. Linezolid versus vancomycin or teicoplanin for nosocomial pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 2010;38:1802-1808.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20639754?tool=bestpractice.com[77]Walkey AJ, O'Donnell MR, Wiener RS. Linezolid vs glycopeptide antibiotics for the treatment of suspected methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nosocomial pneumonia: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Chest. 2011;139:1148-1155.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20864609?tool=bestpractice.com[78]Wunderink RG, Niederman MS, Kollef MH, et al. Linezolid in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nosocomial pneumonia: a randomized, controlled study. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54:621-629.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/54/5/621.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22247123?tool=bestpractice.com临床治愈率:有中等质量证据标明,在两组治疗中,可评估患者的临床治愈率(107 人使用利奈唑胺,71 人治愈 [66.4%],91 人使用万古霉素,62 人治愈 [68.1%])和微生物学治愈率(分别为 53 人中 36 人治愈 [67.9%],39 人中 28 人治愈 [71.8%])不相上下。[73]Rubinstein E, Cammarata S, Oliphant T, et al. Linezolid (PNU-100766) versus vancomycin in the treatment of hospitalized patients with nosocomial pneumonia: a randomized, double-blind, multicenter study. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;32:402-412.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/32/3/402.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11170948?tool=bestpractice.com受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。
如果近期使用抗生素后,或患者正在使用抗生素治疗另一种感染时确诊为 HAP,经验性治疗应该涉及不同类别的药物。[8]American Thoracic Society; Infectious Diseases Society of America. Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;171:388-416.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/rccm.200405-644ST#.UkWJW9KsjTohttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15699079?tool=bestpractice.com[79]Hilf M, Yu VL, Sharp J, et al. Antibiotic therapy for Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia: outcome correlations in a prospective study of 200 patients. Am J Med. 1989;87:540-546.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2816969?tool=bestpractice.com
针对病原菌的抗生素治疗
一旦获知培养结果,抗生素应相应降级:应根据生长的特定病原体的敏感性缩窄治疗范围,或者应该根据未发现的病原体停用抗菌药物。例如,如果培养出了耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌,则应继续使用利奈唑胺,否则停用。[80]Fartoukh M, Maître B, Honoré S, et al. Diagnosing pneumonia during mechanical ventilation: the clinical pulmonary infection score revisited. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;168:173-179.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/rccm.200212-1449OC#.UkWdmdKsjTohttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12738607?tool=bestpractice.com[81]Trouillet JL, Vuagnat A, Combes A, et al. Pseudomonas aeruginosa ventilator-associated pneumonia: comparison of episodes due to piperacillin-resistant versus piperacillin-susceptible organisms. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;34:1047-1054.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/34/8/1047.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11914992?tool=bestpractice.com
对于已确诊的革兰阴性感染(例如假单胞菌、不动杆菌、克雷伯菌、沙雷氏菌),可用于治疗的抗生素示例包括:头孢菌素类(头孢吡肟、头孢他啶)、碳青霉烯类(亚胺培南/西司他丁、美罗培南)、β-内酰胺酶抑制剂(哌拉西林/他唑巴坦)、喹诺酮类(环丙沙星、左氧氟沙星)、氨基糖苷类(阿米卡星、庆大霉素、妥布霉素)或多黏菌素(多黏菌素 E)。使用一种抗生素进行单药治疗应该就已经足够。但是,如果感染出现在难以穿透的部位,例如肺脓肿、脓胸或伴随心内膜炎,则可以联合使用 2 种药物。联合方案可包含:头孢菌素类(头孢吡肟、头孢他啶)、碳青霉烯类(亚胺培南/西司他丁、美罗培南)或 β-内酰胺酶抑制剂(哌拉西林/他唑巴坦),加上喹诺酮(环丙沙星、左氧氟沙星)、氨基糖苷类(阿米卡星、庆大霉素、妥布霉素)或多黏菌素(多黏菌素 E)。头孢他啶/阿维巴坦已获准用于治疗成人患者中由细菌引起的 HAP 和呼吸器相关性肺炎 (VAP)。[82]Torres A, Zhong N, Pachl J, et al. Ceftazidime-avibactam versus meropenem in nosocomial pneumonia, including ventilator-associated pneumonia (REPROVE): a randomised, double-blind, phase 3 non-inferiority trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018 Mar;18(3):285-295.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29254862?tool=bestpractice.com 它对多药耐药性革兰阴性病原菌有抗菌活性,包括产生超广谱 β-内酰胺酶 (extended-spectrum beta-lactamase, ESBL) 的细菌和铜绿假单胞菌。为了防止全球性耐药,应仅将该药用于已证实或强烈怀疑敏感细菌感染的患者或者存在多药耐药的高风险患者。
传统上,任何假单胞菌感染都可使用 2 种抗生素进行治疗。1989 年的一项针对假单胞菌菌血症患者(包括一些肺炎患者)进行评估的研究显示,接受联合治疗的患者的死亡率更低。[79]Hilf M, Yu VL, Sharp J, et al. Antibiotic therapy for Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia: outcome correlations in a prospective study of 200 patients. Am J Med. 1989;87:540-546.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2816969?tool=bestpractice.com 此后,有研究显示,接受单一或联合治疗的 HAP 患者的结果是相似的。[83]Garnacho-Montero J, Sa-Borges M, Sole-Violan J, et al. Optimal management therapy for Pseudomonas aeruginosa ventilator-associated pneumonia: an observational, multicenter study comparing monotherapy with combination antibiotic therapy. Crit Care Med. 2007;35:1888-1895.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17581492?tool=bestpractice.com[84]Paul M, Benuri-Silbiger I, Soares-Weiser K, et al. Beta lactam monotherapy versus beta lactam-aminoglycoside combination therapy for sepsis in immunocompetent patients: systematic review and metaanalysis of randomised trials. BMJ. 2004;328:668.http://www.bmj.com/content/328/7441/668http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14996699?tool=bestpractice.com[85]Cometta A, Baumgartner JD, Lew D, et al. Prospective randomized comparison of imipenem monotherapy with imipenem plus netilmicin for treatment of severe infections in nonneutropenic patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1994;38:1309-1313.http://aac.asm.org/content/38/6/1309.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8092830?tool=bestpractice.com死亡率:质量较差的证据表明,排除接受不恰当经验性治疗的患者 (n = 40),接受单药治疗或联合治疗的假单胞菌感染患者的死亡率不具有统计学差异(23.1% vs 33.2%;P = 0.27)。在生还者中,接受单药治疗或联合治疗的患者具有相似的重症监护病房入住时长(中位值分别为 27 天和 31 天;四分位值 [IQR] 分别为 18-43 和 26-58.5;P = 0.2)和住院时长(中位值分别为 40 天和 43 天;IQR 分别为 19.25-51.25 和 30-68.25;P = 0.15)。[83]Garnacho-Montero J, Sa-Borges M, Sole-Violan J, et al. Optimal management therapy for Pseudomonas aeruginosa ventilator-associated pneumonia: an observational, multicenter study comparing monotherapy with combination antibiotic therapy. Crit Care Med. 2007;35:1888-1895.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17581492?tool=bestpractice.com低质量的观察性(队列)研究或者受试者<200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。 单药治疗的益处包括不良反应更少、耐药性更少、成本较低。
金黄色葡萄球菌是引起 HAP 的一种常见革兰氏阳性病原菌。可使用青霉素或头孢菌素针对甲氧西林敏感菌株进行治疗。如果患者对青霉素过敏,则可使用利奈唑胺或万古霉素。可使用利奈唑胺或万古霉素针对甲氧西林耐药菌株进行治疗。
如果 HAP 由产超广谱 β-内酰胺酶肠杆菌引起,则建议使用碳青霉烯类抗生素进行一线治疗。使用喹诺酮进行二线治疗。即使为敏感性病原菌,仍不建议使用头孢菌素,因为开始使用后可能存在快速耐药的威胁。嗜肺军团菌是 HAP 的一种不常见的病因。可使用喹诺酮或大环内酯类药物进行治疗。
治疗持续时间
已根据临床肺部感染评分 (CPIS) 制定了一种方法来帮助决定是否应该调整治疗,甚至停止治疗。[54]Singh N, Rogers P, Atwood CW, et al. Short-course empiric antibiotic therapy for patients with pulmonary infiltrates in the intensive care unit: a proposed solution for indiscriminate antibiotic prescription. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;162:505-511.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/ajrccm.162.2.9909095#.UkWYE9KsjTohttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10934078?tool=bestpractice.com
临床肺部感染评分 (Clinical Pulmonary Infection Score, CPIS)
诊断当天,通过评估 5 个临床特征来计算 CPIS,每个临床特征基于严重程度标准给出 0 到 2 分(分数越高,表示越严重):然后在第三天重新计算总和(新增 2 个标准):
如果 CPIS 在两天内均 <6,则可停用疑似诊断当天开始使用的抗菌药物,前提是患者没有严重的免疫抑制并且没有严重脓毒症。这种疗法被称作“短期疗法”。如果某天 CPIS 为 6 或更高,则应继续完成整个疗程的抗生素治疗。
来自准确性研究的汇总数据显示,没有充分的证据表明不建议使用 CPIS 以确定或排除 VAP,或者确定抗微生物治疗的持续时间。[1]Kalil AC, Metersky ML, Klompas M, et al. Management of adults with hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia: 2016 clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Thoracic Society. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;63:e61-e111.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/63/5/e61.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27418577?tool=bestpractice.com[86]Shan J, Chen HL, Zhu JH. Diagnostic accuracy of clinical pulmonary infection score for ventilator-associated pneumonia: a meta-analysis. Respir Care. 2011;56:1087-1094.http://rc.rcjournal.com/content/56/8/1087.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21310117?tool=bestpractice.com
如果患者临床情况和影像学检查结果稳定(包括实验室检查值),并且未感染不动杆菌或铜绿假单胞菌,则可在 7 天内完成抗生素治疗疗程。[1]Kalil AC, Metersky ML, Klompas M, et al. Management of adults with hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia: 2016 clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Thoracic Society. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;63:e61-e111.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/63/5/e61.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27418577?tool=bestpractice.com[67]Franzetti F, Antonelli M, Bassetti M, et al. Consensus document on controversial issues for the treatment of hospital-associated pneumonia. Int J Infect Dis. 2010;14 Suppl 4:S55-S65.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20863734?tool=bestpractice.com[87]Chastre J, Wolff M, Fagon JY, et al; PneumA Trial Group. Comparison of 8 vs 15 days of antibiotic therapy for ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2003;290:2588-2598.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=197644http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14625336?tool=bestpractice.com 没有数据支持更长时间的 MRSA 治疗,但是很多情况下会这样做;如果存在菌血症,则治疗时间应为 2 周,如果 HAP/VAP 伴有脓胸或心内膜炎等并发症,则治疗时间应更长。对于 MDR 病原菌导致的 VAP,接受 7 到 8 天抗菌药物治疗的患者出现更少复发,并且死亡率、住院时间、治疗失败以及机械插管和通气时间都无差异。[88]Pugh R, Grant C, Cooke RP, et al. Short-course versus prolonged-course antibiotic therapy for hospital-acquired pneumonia in critically ill adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(8):CD007577.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD007577.pub3/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26301604?tool=bestpractice.com[89]Dimopoulos G, Poulakou G, Pneumatikos IA, et al. Short- vs long-duration antibiotic regimens for ventilator-associated pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Chest. 2013;144:1759-1767.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleID=1698747http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23788274?tool=bestpractice.com [
]Which regimen is most effective at improving outcomes in critically ill adults with hospital-acquired pneumonia: short-course or prolonged-course antibiotic therapy?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1174/full显示答案 美国疾病预防控制中心 (CDC) 开展的优化住院医疗机构的抗菌药物使用的活动倡导,在适当的情况下停止抗生素治疗,而不是延长抗生素治疗疗程(在过去,这是治疗 HAP 时采取的做法)。[90]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Antibiotic Prescribing and Use in Hospitals and Long-Term care. December 2017 [internet publication]https://www.cdc.gov/antibiotic-use/healthcare/index.html 因此,大多数 HAP 治疗的持续时间可能更短,但对于假单胞菌或不动杆菌导致的 HAP,仍应治疗 2 周。[87]Chastre J, Wolff M, Fagon JY, et al; PneumA Trial Group. Comparison of 8 vs 15 days of antibiotic therapy for ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2003;290:2588-2598.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=197644http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14625336?tool=bestpractice.com
如果这段时间内未见改善,则应考虑更改抗生素治疗方案以覆盖耐药或者异常(例如真菌)的病原菌。但是,评估患者是否存在其他肺部疾病也很重要,例如,重新考虑积液是否为渗出物(例如脓胸)而不是漏出液。[8]American Thoracic Society; Infectious Diseases Society of America. Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;171:388-416.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/rccm.200405-644ST#.UkWJW9KsjTohttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15699079?tool=bestpractice.com 评估患者是否存在其他非肺源性感染也很重要。可能指示以前未考虑的某种操作,例如为了排除感染性血栓性静脉炎而通过静脉管路进行肢体超声检查。可能还需要重复进行支气管镜检查或胸腔穿刺。总体而言,治疗失败的原因可能是:[91]Meduri GU, Mauldin GL, Wunderink RG, et al. Causes of fever and pulmonary densities in patients with clinical manifestations of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest. 1994;106:221-235.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/data/Journals/CHEST/21696/221.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8020275?tool=bestpractice.com
呼吸科医生可能考虑某些策略,例如将呼吸机设置更改为压力支持或者使用振动模式。
喉罩的动画演示
鼻咽气道的动画演示
口咽气道的动画演示
气管插管的动画演示
球囊面罩通气的动画演示
对治疗的反应:CRP 和降钙素原
降钙素原可用于追踪从诊断日开始的数值变化趋势。[98]Seppä Y, Bloigu A, Honkanen PO, et al. Severity assessment of lower respiratory tract infection in elderly patients in primary care. Arch Intern Med. 2001;161:2709-2713.http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=752309http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11732936?tool=bestpractice.com 该信息可用于确定停止使用抗菌药物的时间。[1]Kalil AC, Metersky ML, Klompas M, et al. Management of adults with hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia: 2016 clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Thoracic Society. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;63:e61-e111.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/63/5/e61.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27418577?tool=bestpractice.com