虽然在美国进行水痘免疫接种已是常规,但在欧洲各国间的水痘疫苗使用情况不尽相同。[20]Bernaola Iturbe E, Giménez Sánchez F, Baca Cots M, et al. Vaccination schedule of the Spanish Association of Pediatrics: recommendations 2009 [in Spanish]. An Pediatr (Barc). 2009;70:72-82.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19174124?tool=bestpractice.com
在英国和欧洲其他一些地区,目前尚未建议对儿童进行常规水痘疫苗接种。但是,建议通过对经常接触或密切接触此类患者的个体接种疫苗来保护具有严重疾病危险的人群,例如,非免疫接种的医疗人员以及在家庭中密切接触免疫功能不全患者的健康易感人群。[21]Department of Health (UK). The Green Book: Varicella. September 2013. http://www.gov.uk/ (last accessed 24 February 2017).https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/varicella-the-green-book-chapter-34
单剂量可产生的疗效约为 80%-85%,[22]Vázquez M, LaRussa PS, Gershon AA, et al. The effectiveness of the varicella vaccine in clinical practice. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:955-960.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM200103293441302#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11274621?tool=bestpractice.com但目前建议的二次剂量可将疗效提高至 95% 以上。[23]Kuter B, Matthews H, Shinefield H, et al. Ten year follow-up of healthy children who received one or two injections of varicella vaccine. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2004;23:132-137.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14872179?tool=bestpractice.com[24]Ngai AL, Staehle BO, Kuter BJ, et al. Safety and immunogenicity of one vs. two injections of Oka/Merck varicella vaccine in healthy children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1996;15:49-54.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8684876?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Watson B, Rothstein E, Bernstein H, et al. Safety and cellular and humoral immune responses of a booster dose of varicella vaccine 6 years after primary immunization. J Infect Dis. 1995;172:217-219.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7797914?tool=bestpractice.com水痘发病率:与安慰剂相比,高质量证据表明,减毒活水痘疫苗可以降低健康儿童的水痘发病率(9 个月后至 2 年)。[26]Skull SA, Wang EE. Varicella vaccination - a critical review of the evidence. Arch Dis Child. 2001;85:83-90.http://adc.bmj.com/content/85/2/83.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11466178?tool=bestpractice.com系统评价或者受试者>200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。评估疫苗效果的临床试验通常采取短期(1 至 2 年随访)随访患者的方式进行。在日本,通过维持免疫人群的抗体浓度可以使免疫接种效果的持续时间>20 年,[22]Vázquez M, LaRussa PS, Gershon AA, et al. The effectiveness of the varicella vaccine in clinical practice. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:955-960.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM200103293441302#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11274621?tool=bestpractice.com在一项长期研究中发现,接种疫苗人群中 7 年后未发生水痘的人群预计比例为 95%。[27]Kuter BJ, Weibel RE, Guess HA, et al. Oka/Merck varicella vaccine in healthy children: final report of a 2-year efficacy study and 7-year follow-up studies. Vaccine. 1991;9:643-647.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1659052?tool=bestpractice.com在相同群体中开展的另一项 10 年随访研究显示,注射 1 次疫苗后 10 年观察期的疫苗预计有效性为 94.4%,注射 2 次为 98.3%。[23]Kuter B, Matthews H, Shinefield H, et al. Ten year follow-up of healthy children who received one or two injections of varicella vaccine. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2004;23:132-137.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14872179?tool=bestpractice.com实施普遍性免疫接种策略还显示出水痘相关的死亡率大幅降低。[28]Marin M, Jhang JX, Seward JF. Near elimination of varicella deaths in the US after implementation of the vaccination program. Pediatrics. 2011;128:214-220.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/128/2/214.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21788222?tool=bestpractice.com
免疫接种后带状疱疹的发病率数据显示出其有效性。接种疫苗的患者发病率低于自然感染 VZV 患者。[29]Marin M, Meissner HC, Seward JF. Varicella prevention in the United States: a review of successes and challenges. Pediatrics. 2008;122:e744-e751.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18762511?tool=bestpractice.com[30]Harpaz R, Ortega-Sanchez IR, Seward JF, et al; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevention of herpes zoster: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2008;57:1-30.http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5705a1.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18528318?tool=bestpractice.com [
]减毒活水痘带状疱疹病毒疫苗是否可以防止老人患带状疱疹?http://cochraneclinicalanswers.com/doi/10.1002/cca.1404/full显示答案 数据显示,在免疫功能正常的儿童中,与感染野生型水痘的儿童相比,接受免疫接种的儿童的带状疱疹发病率较低。[31]Black S, Shinefield H, Ray P, et al. Postmarketing evaluation of the safety and effectiveness of varicella vaccine. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1999;18:1041-1046.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10608621?tool=bestpractice.com[32]Tseng HF, Smith N, Marcy SM, et al. Incidence of herpes zoster among children vaccinated with varicella vaccine in a prepaid health care plan in the United States, 2002-2008. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2009;28:1069-1072.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19773676?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Wen SY, Liu WL. Epidemiology of pediatric herpes zoster after varicella infection: a population-based study. Pediatrics. 2015;135:e565-e571.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/135/3/e565.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25713285?tool=bestpractice.com同样,在接种水痘疫苗的儿童中,与既往感染野生型水痘儿童相比,免疫功能不全儿童的带状疱疹感染风险较低。[34]Hardy I, Gershon AA, Steinberg SP, et al. The incidence of zoster after immunization with live attenuated varicella vaccine - a study in children with leukemia. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:1545-1550.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199111283252204#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1658650?tool=bestpractice.com[35]Lawrence R, Gershon AA, Holzman R, et al. The risk of zoster after varicella vaccination in children with leukemia. N Engl J Med. 1988;318:543-548.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2828948?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Wen SY, Liu WL. Epidemiology of pediatric herpes zoster after varicella infection: a population-based study. Pediatrics. 2015;135:e565-e571.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/135/3/e565.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25713285?tool=bestpractice.com但是,由于大多数研究随访时间短,因此仍需要更多的流行病学数据,以确定接受免疫接种的儿童和成人感染带状疱疹的长期风险。[30]Harpaz R, Ortega-Sanchez IR, Seward JF, et al; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevention of herpes zoster: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2008;57:1-30.http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5705a1.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18528318?tool=bestpractice.com
有些国家不建议进行常规儿童水痘疫苗接种,其部分原因是担心发生自然感染(例如患水痘的儿童)后外源性免疫力增强能力出现下降,导致成人患带状疱疹的风险增加。[36]Ogunjimi B, Van Damme P, Beutels P. Herpes zoster risk reduction through exposure to chickenpox patients: a systematic multidisciplinary review. PLoS One. 2013;8:e66485.http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0066485http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23805224?tool=bestpractice.com[37]World Health Organization. Varicella and herpes zoster vaccines: WHO position paper, 2014. June 2014. http://www.who.int/ (last accessed 24 February 2017).http://www.who.int/wer/2014/wer8925.pdf例如,在欧洲,各国对于水痘疫苗接种的意见不一,只有 6 个欧盟国家建议普及疫苗接种。[38]European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC). ECDC guidance: varicella vaccination in the European Union. 2015. http://ecdc.europa.eu/ (last accessed 24 February 2017).http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications/Publications/Varicella-Guidance-2015.pdf回顾性研究并未得出统一的结果,[39]Güris D, Jumaan AO, Mascola L, et al. Changing varicella epidemiology in active surveillance sites - United States, 1995-2005. J Infect Dis. 2008;197(Suppl 2):S71-S75.http://jid.oxfordjournals.org/content/197/Supplement_2/S71.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18419413?tool=bestpractice.com[40]Rimland D, Moanna A. Increasing incidence of herpes zoster among veterans. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50:1000-1005.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/50/7/1000.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20178416?tool=bestpractice.com在实施上述儿童疫苗接种计划前,受到带状疱疹发病率显著升高的限制。[41]Carville KS, Grant KA, Kelly HA. Herpes zoster in Australia. Epidemiol Infect. 2012;140:599-600.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21849096?tool=bestpractice.com[42]Russell ML, Dover DC, Simmonds KA, et al. Shingles in Alberta: before and after publicly funded varicella vaccination. Vaccine. 2013;32:6319-6324.http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264410X13012498http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24099868?tool=bestpractice.com
新生儿、孕妇和免疫功能不全个体或接受大剂量系统性免疫抑制治疗的患者禁用该疫苗;但是,在一些国家中,建议所有无免疫力女性将其作为孕前和产后护理的一部分接种疫苗。[43]Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Chickenpox in pregnancy (Green-top guideline no. 13). January 2015. https://www.rcog.org.uk/ (last accessed 24 February 2017).https://www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/gtg13.pdf应记录所有孕妇的水痘免疫状态和免疫接种历史,告知血清反应阴性的所有患者关于妊娠期原发性水痘感染风险会增加的信息,在可能接触的情况下立即寻求医疗帮助。[44]Shrim A, Koren G, Yudin MH, et al. Management of varicella infection (chickenpox) in pregnancy. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2012;34:287-292.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22385673?tool=bestpractice.com对于伴有对疫苗任何成分(例如:明胶)发生超敏反应史或伴有对新霉素产生过敏反应的患者,应禁用该疫苗。注明其他禁忌证并对接受联合疫苗(麻疹、腮腺炎、风疹和水痘疫苗)的儿童采取其他预防措施。[45]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Manual for the surveillance of vaccine-preventable diseases: chapter 17 - varicella. April 2014. http://www.cdc.gov/ (last accessed 24 February 2017).http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/surv-manual/chpt17-varicella.html
在非随机研究中,水痘疫苗似乎在一些器官功能障碍和轻度免疫力低下患者中是安全的。[46]Danerseau AM, Robinson JL. Efficacy and safety of measles, mumps, rubella and varicella live viral vaccines in transplant recipients receiving immunosuppressive drugs. World J Pediatr. 2008;4:254-258.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19104888?tool=bestpractice.com[47]Furth SL, Hogg RJ, Tarver J, et al. Varicella vaccination in children with chronic renal failure: a report of the Southwest Pediatric Nephrology Study Group. Pediatr Nephrol. 2003;18:33-38.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12488988?tool=bestpractice.com[48]Geel A, Zuidema W, van Gelder T, et al. Successful vaccination against varicella zoster virus prior to kidney transplantation. Transplant Proc. 2005;37:952-953.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15848586?tool=bestpractice.com[49]Webb NJ, Fitzpatrick MM, Hughes DA, et al; Trans-Pennine Paediatric Nephrology Study Group. Immunisation against varicella in end stage and pre-end stage renal failure. Arch Dis Child. 2000;82:141-143.http://adc.bmj.com/content/82/2/141.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10648369?tool=bestpractice.com[50]Kano H, Mizuta K, Sakakihara Y, et al. Efficacy and safety of immunization for pre- and post-liver transplant children. Transplantation. 2002;74:543-550.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12352917?tool=bestpractice.com[51]Nithichaiyo C, Chongsrisawat V, Hutagalung Y, et al. Immunogenicity and adverse effects of live attenuated varicella vaccine (Oka-strain) in children with chronic liver disease. Asian Pac J Allergy Immunol. 2001;19:101-105.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11699716?tool=bestpractice.com近期建议对高风险移植人群进行水痘疫苗同样可行。[52]Pergam SA, Limaye AP. Varicella zoster virus (VZV) in solid organ transplant recipients. Am J Transplant. 2009;9(suppl 4):S108-S115.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20070670?tool=bestpractice.com[53]Zaia J, Baden L, Boeckh MJ, et al. Viral disease prevention after hematopoietic cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2009;44:471-482.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19861981?tool=bestpractice.com疾病得到缓解且停止化疗至少 3 个月的白血病、淋巴瘤或其他恶性肿瘤患者能够接受活病毒疫苗。在为可能出现某种程度免疫缺陷的患者接种时,仅可使用单抗原水痘疫苗。病情得到缓解的白血病儿童或其他无水痘免疫证据的免疫功能不全宿主进行免疫接种时,仅可根据专家的指导以及抗病毒治疗药物的可用性,以免发生并发症。[2]Marin M, Güris D, Chaves SS, et al; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevention of varicella: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2007;56:1-40.http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5604a1.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17585291?tool=bestpractice.com
在一些国家,建议对所有分娩前 5 天至分娩后 2 天发病的母亲所产新生儿注射水痘带状疱疹免疫球蛋白,因为这些婴儿处于感染重度水痘疾病的风险中。[44]Shrim A, Koren G, Yudin MH, et al. Management of varicella infection (chickenpox) in pregnancy. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2012;34:287-292.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22385673?tool=bestpractice.com[54]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. FDA approval of an extended period for administering VariZIG for postexposure prophylaxis of varicella. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2012;61:212.http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6112a4.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22456121?tool=bestpractice.com