所有急性上消化道出血的患者应该被收入院并安装自动测量记录传导装置,从而给予适当的监护。
对就诊于急诊的上消化道出血患者进行分层的评分系统已经建立,包括 Glasgow-Blatchford 出血评分 (Glasgow-Blatchford bleeding score, GBS)[8]Srirajaskanthan R, Conn R, Bulwer C, et al. The Glasgow Blatchford scoring system enables accurate risk stratification of patients with upper gastrointestinal haemorrhage. Int J Clin Pract. 2010;64:868-874.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20337750?tool=bestpractice.com[9]Masaoka T, Suzuki H, Hori S, et al. Blatchford scoring system is a useful scoring system for detecting patients with upper gastrointestinal bleeding who do not need endoscopic intervention. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2007;22:1404-1408.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17716345?tool=bestpractice.com 和 Rockall 评分。[10]Rockall TA, Logan RF, Devlin HB, et al. Risk assessment after acute upper gastrointestinal haemorrhage. Gut. 1996;38:316-321.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1383057/pdf/gut00504-0024.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8675081?tool=bestpractice.com[11]Tham TC, James C, Kelly M. Predicting outcome of acute non-variceal upper gastrointestinal haemorrhage without endoscopy using the clinical Rockall Score. Postgrad Med J. 2006;82:757-759.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2660506/?tool=pubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17099097?tool=bestpractice.com 关于使用哪种风险评估工具最恰当,各指南的推荐存在差异。[12]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding in over 16s: management. August 2016. http://nice.org.uk/ (last accessed 20 March 2017).http://guidance.nice.org.uk/CG141[13]Gralnek IM, Dumonceau JM, Kuipers EJ, et al. Diagnosis and management of nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage: European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE) guideline. Endoscopy. 2015;47:a1-a46.https://www.thieme-connect.com/products/ejournals/html/10.1055/s-0034-1393172http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26417980?tool=bestpractice.com[14]Fujishiro M, Iguchi M, Kakushima N, et al. Guidelines for endoscopic management of non-variceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Dig Endosc. 2016;28:363-378.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/den.12639/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26900095?tool=bestpractice.com[15]Bai Y, Li ZS. Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute non-variceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding (2015, Nanchang, China). J Dig Dis. 2016;17:79-87.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26853440?tool=bestpractice.com 在英国,国家卫生与临床优化研究所 (National Institute for Health and Care Excellence) 推荐,对于所有急性上消化道出血患者,应该在首次评估时应用 GBS 进行风险评估,在内窥镜检查后应用 Rockall 评分进行风险评估。[12]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding in over 16s: management. August 2016. http://nice.org.uk/ (last accessed 20 March 2017).http://guidance.nice.org.uk/CG141 一些数据表明,GBS 可能对鉴别不需要紧急内镜检查的患者更敏感。[16]Yaka E, Yılmaz S, Doğan NÖ, et al. Comparison of the Glasgow-Blatchford and AIMS65 scoring systems for risk stratification in upper gastrointestinal bleeding in the emergency department. Acad Emerg Med. 2015;22:22-30.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acem.12554/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25556538?tool=bestpractice.com
Glasgow-Blatchford 评分运用以下参数:尿素氮,血红蛋白,收缩压,脉率,黑便,肝病的病史或证据以及冠状动脉疾病。0 分提示低风险以及适于按门诊患者处理或者择期内镜下治疗。6 分及以上需要干预的风险大于 50%。[8]Srirajaskanthan R, Conn R, Bulwer C, et al. The Glasgow Blatchford scoring system enables accurate risk stratification of patients with upper gastrointestinal haemorrhage. Int J Clin Pract. 2010;64:868-874.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20337750?tool=bestpractice.com[9]Masaoka T, Suzuki H, Hori S, et al. Blatchford scoring system is a useful scoring system for detecting patients with upper gastrointestinal bleeding who do not need endoscopic intervention. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2007;22:1404-1408.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17716345?tool=bestpractice.com
Rockall 评分系统包括临床诊断标准(年龄的增长、共病、休克)以及内镜下发现(比如出血来源和/或近期出血的红斑),以确定患者急性上消化道出血不良后果的风险。总分通过简单的加法计算。小于 3 分提示预后较好,8 分及以上提示死亡风险较高。[10]Rockall TA, Logan RF, Devlin HB, et al. Risk assessment after acute upper gastrointestinal haemorrhage. Gut. 1996;38:316-321.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1383057/pdf/gut00504-0024.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8675081?tool=bestpractice.com[11]Tham TC, James C, Kelly M. Predicting outcome of acute non-variceal upper gastrointestinal haemorrhage without endoscopy using the clinical Rockall Score. Postgrad Med J. 2006;82:757-759.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2660506/?tool=pubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17099097?tool=bestpractice.com
上消化道出血引起低血压、心动过速、直立性低血压、或其他低血容量性休克的表现时必须迅速处理,应该考虑将患者收入重症监护室。应该迅速建立两条大口径静脉通道,输注晶体液以维持合适的血压。有进行性活动性出血证据或者曾有严重出血或者出现心肌缺血的患者应该输注浓缩红细胞。新鲜冰冻血浆被用于纠正凝血功能障碍疾病(常见于有潜在肝病基础的患者)。在非静脉曲张出血的严重病例中,当其他方式不能保证充分的灌注时,可以使用血管升压药。而且,在严重的上消化道出血病例及内镜治疗失败时,外科医师应该尽早参与治疗。
质子泵抑制剂抑制胃酸分泌的治疗是必须的,可以静脉或者口服给药。[17]Sreedharan A, Martin J, Leontiadis GI, et al. Proton pump inhibitor treatment initiated prior to endoscopic diagnosis in upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;(7):CD005415.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20614440?tool=bestpractice.com[18]Sung JJ, Chan FK, Lau JY, et al. The effect of endoscopic therapy in patients receiving omeprazole for bleeding ulcers with nonbleeding visible vessels or adherent clots: a randomized comparison. Ann Intern Med. 2003;139:237-243.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12965978?tool=bestpractice.com[19]Khuroo MS, Yattoo GN, Javid G, et al. A comparison of omeprazole and placebo for bleeding peptic ulcer. N Engl J Med. 1997;336:1054-1058.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199704103361503#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9091801?tool=bestpractice.com 静脉用 PPI 包括奥美拉唑、泮托拉唑、兰索拉唑和埃索美拉唑。
虽然没有充分的证据支持,但是专家意见告知了关于活动性非静脉曲张上消化道出血的患者最佳血小板计数指标的推荐。[20]Razzaghi A, Barkun AN. Platelet transfusion threshold in patients with upper gastrointestinal bleeding: a systematic review. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2012;46:482-486.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22688143?tool=bestpractice.com 一旦血流动力学稳定,非静脉曲张上消化道出血的患者可以进行内镜检查。应考虑在内窥镜检查前静脉输注红霉素,以提高诊断率,减少重复内窥镜检查的需要。不过,尚无一致性证据显示红霉素可以改善临床结局。[21]Laine L, Jensen DM. Management of patients with ulcer bleeding. Am J Gastroenterol. 2012;107:345-360.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22310222?tool=bestpractice.com[13]Gralnek IM, Dumonceau JM, Kuipers EJ, et al. Diagnosis and management of nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage: European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE) guideline. Endoscopy. 2015;47:a1-a46.https://www.thieme-connect.com/products/ejournals/html/10.1055/s-0034-1393172http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26417980?tool=bestpractice.com 对于仍有进行性显著呕血或者由于某种原因(活动性呕血、精神状态改变等)无法保证呼吸道通畅而有误吸风险的患者,应该考虑在内镜检查前进行气管插管。
对于静脉曲张性上消化道出血,英国国家健康与临床优化研究所建议静脉给予一种血管加压素类似物,即特利加压素,直到出血停止或最多使用 5 天(除非有其他指征需要继续使用)。[12]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding in over 16s: management. August 2016. http://nice.org.uk/ (last accessed 20 March 2017).http://guidance.nice.org.uk/CG141 或者,奥曲肽可以静脉推注,接着持续静脉输注 2-5 天。[22]Garcia-Tsao G. Current management of the complications of cirrhosis and portal hypertension: variceal hemorrhage, ascites, and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. Gastroenterology. 2001;120:726-748.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11179247?tool=bestpractice.com 经颈静脉肝内门体静脉分流术是内镜无法治疗的静脉曲张性上消化道出血患者最后的治疗措施。三腔二囊管(Sengstaken-Blakemore,用于食管静脉曲张)或 Linton-Nachlas(用于胃静脉曲张)球囊填塞装置可用于实施分流术之前以减轻出血。[22]Garcia-Tsao G. Current management of the complications of cirrhosis and portal hypertension: variceal hemorrhage, ascites, and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. Gastroenterology. 2001;120:726-748.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11179247?tool=bestpractice.com
虽然更加普遍的使用抑酸治疗似乎正在减少上消化道出血的发生率,但是上消化道出血的最常见原因仍是消化性溃疡,其次是糜烂、食管炎以及静脉曲张。应当引起注意的是,在年轻的儿科患者中,静脉曲张的诊断不能被直接排除,门静脉高压可以由血管畸形或其他非酒精性肝硬化等原因引起。