治疗的主要目标是实现甲状腺功能指标的正常化。这一目标的实现方式包括:使用抗甲状腺药物、利用放射性碘对甲状腺组织进行消融或实施手术。[79]Cooper DS. Antithyroid drugs in the management of patients with Graves' disease: an evidence-based approach to therapeutic controversies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003 Aug;88(8):3474-81.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12915620?tool=bestpractice.com[80]Weber KJ, Solorzano CC, Lee JK, et al. Thyroidectomy remains an effective treatment option for Graves' disease. Am J Surg. 2006 Mar;191(3):400-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16490555?tool=bestpractice.com[81]Hegedüs L. Treatment of Graves' hyperthyroidism: evidence-based and emerging modalities. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2009 Jun;38(2):355-71.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19328416?tool=bestpractice.com
尚无安全有效的疗法可用于纠正基础的自身免疫过程。[2]Smith TJ, Hegedüs L. Graves' disease. N Engl J Med. 2016 Oct 20;375(16):1552-65.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27797318?tool=bestpractice.com 免疫调节和免疫抑制疗法仅用于眼眶病和皮肤病的重度形式。[5]Fatourechi V. Pretibial myxedema: pathophysiology and treatment options. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2005;6(5):295-309.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16252929?tool=bestpractice.com[63]Bartalena L, Baldeschi L, Boboridis K, et al. The 2016 European Thyroid Association/European Group on Graves' Orbitopathy guidelines for the management of Graves' orbitopathy. Eur Thyroid J. 2016 Mar;5(1):9-26.http://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/443828#http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27099835?tool=bestpractice.com
甲状腺危象很罕见,一般见于难以获得医疗系统服务的未经治疗或未经全面治疗的患者。[82]Sherman SI, Simonson L, Ladenson PW. Clinical and socioeconomic predispositions to complicated thyrotoxicosis: a predictable and preventable syndrome? Am J Med. 1996 Aug;101(2):192-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8757360?tool=bestpractice.com 甲状腺危象可能随时出现,这取决于各种诱因。在罕见的情况下,甲状腺危象会成为主要症状。在接受放射性碘治疗后可发生甲状腺危象,由于储备的甲状腺激素释放所致;[83]Hayek A. Thyroid storm following radioiodine for thyrotoxicosis. J Pediatr. 1978 Dec;93(6):978-80.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/722446?tool=bestpractice.com[84]McDermott MT, Kidd GS, Dodson LE Jr, et al. Radioiodine-induced thyroid storm. Case report and literature review. Am J Med. 1983 Aug;75(2):353-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6349350?tool=bestpractice.com 如果未对患者进行术前医药准备,也可能在手术后发生。甲状腺危象患者会表现出血容量不足、充血性心力衰竭、意识模糊、恶心和呕吐以及极度易激惹。预防非常重要。甲状腺危象的处理包括支持治疗,例如降温、纠正容量状态、需要时进行呼吸支持以及合适时治疗潜在的脓毒症,这些方法都应当在重症监护环境中进行,并要听取内分泌专科医生的意见。还应当给予大剂量抗甲状腺药物、皮质类固醇激素、β 受体阻滞剂和碘溶液(例如 Lugol 溶液或碘化钾饱和溶液 [SSKI])。Lugol 溶液必须在抗甲状腺药物首次给药后不早于 30 分钟给予,以避免因减轻或消除 Wolff-Chaikoff 效应导致的甲状腺毒症加重。Lugol 溶液和 SSKI 的替代药物是碘化钠,静脉使用;然而在有些国家没有这种药物。[85]Chiha M, Samarasinghe S, Kabaker AS. Thyroid storm: an updated review. J Intensive Care Med. 2015 Mar;30(3):131-40.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23920160?tool=bestpractice.com 还可以给予考来烯胺和锂。[86]Turner BC. Thyroid emergencies part 1: Thyroid storm. CPD J Acute Med. 2004;3:93-5.[87]Vijayakumar V, Nusynowitz ML, Ali S. Is it safe to treat hyperthyroid patients with I-131 without fear of thyroid storm? Ann Nucl Med. 2006 Jul;20(6):383-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16922465?tool=bestpractice.com 考来烯胺可减少甲状腺激素的肝肠循环。锂能降低甲状腺激素的水平。
亚临床疾病的治疗应个体化。亚临床甲状腺功能亢进与心房颤动发生风险增加相关,并增加未服用雌激素的绝经后女性的骨质疏松风险。[88]Cooper DS. Approach to the patient with subclinical hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007 Jan;92(1):3-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17209221?tool=bestpractice.com 2016 年美国甲状腺协会指南指出,在 TSH 持续<0.1 mIU/L 时,应考虑对年龄在 65 周岁以上的患者、未服用雌激素或双膦酸盐的绝经后女性以及具有心脏危险因素、心脏病、骨质疏松症或甲状腺功能亢进症状的患者进行治疗。[89]Ross DS, Burch HB, Cooper DS, et al. 2016 American Thyroid Association guidelines for diagnosis and management of hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis. Thyroid. 2016 Oct;26(10):1343-421.http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/thy.2016.0229http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27521067?tool=bestpractice.com 在 Graves 病所致的亚临床甲状腺功能亢进患者中,一般而言,1/3 将恢复正常,1/3 将仍处于亚临床甲状腺功能亢进状态,其余 1/3 将发展为显性甲状腺功能亢进;老年患者和抗甲状腺素过氧化物酶 (TPO) 抗体阳性的患者进展风险更高。[20]Zhyzhneuskaya S, Addison C, Tsatlidis V, et al. The natural history of subclinical hyperthyroidism in Graves' disease: the rule of thirds. Thyroid. 2016 Jun;26(6):765-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27090092?tool=bestpractice.com
对症治疗
使用 β 肾上腺素能阻滞剂(例如普萘洛尔),直到特异性疗法使外周血甲状腺激素水平达到正常。[2]Smith TJ, Hegedüs L. Graves' disease. N Engl J Med. 2016 Oct 20;375(16):1552-65.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27797318?tool=bestpractice.com 如果不能使用 β-受体阻滞剂,则钙-通道阻滞剂是替代药物。
具体疗法:抗甲状腺药物、放射性碘或手术
抗甲状腺药物、放射性碘和手术都是用于治疗 Graves 甲状腺功能亢进症的有效且相对安全的选择。选择疗法时,应首先与治疗医师进行详细讨论,并考虑患者的偏好和价值取向。[90]Ross DS. Radioiodine therapy for hyperthyroidism. N Engl J Med. 2011 Feb 10;364(6):542-50.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21306240?tool=bestpractice.com 在美国,内分泌专科医生倾向于使用抗甲状腺药物代替放射性碘,不过总体而言,放射性碘仍然是选择的主要治疗。[91]Burch HB, Burman KD, Cooper DS. A 2011 survey of clinical practice patterns in the management of Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012 Dec;97(12):4549-58.https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/97/12/4549/2536521http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23043191?tool=bestpractice.com 2011 年美国调查数据发现,美国 60% 的内分泌专科医生选择放射性碘作为 Graves 病的主要治疗方法,相比之下,1991 年的一项调查显示该比例接近 70%。来自美国甲状腺协会 (American Thyroid Association) 的指导是:有明显 Graves 甲状腺功能亢进的患者应当接受 3 种方法中的任意一种治疗,选择应当个体化。[89]Ross DS, Burch HB, Cooper DS, et al. 2016 American Thyroid Association guidelines for diagnosis and management of hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis. Thyroid. 2016 Oct;26(10):1343-421.http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/thy.2016.0229http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27521067?tool=bestpractice.com 在欧洲,抗甲状腺药物是 Graves 病的首选,[92]Bartalena L, Burch HB, Burman KD, et al. A 2013 European survey of clinical practice patterns in the management of Graves' disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2016 Jan;84(1):115-20.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cen.12688/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25581877?tool=bestpractice.com 而疗程较长的抗甲状腺药物治疗在日本受到青睐。[93]Wartofsky L, Glinoer D, Solomon B, et al. Differences and similarities in the diagnosis and treatment of Graves’ disease in Europe, Japan, and the United States. Thyroid. 1991;1(2):129-35.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1688014?tool=bestpractice.com 唯一的一个 Graves 病治疗随机试验表明,接受 3 种疗法中任何一种的患者,在生活质量上与接受另外两种疗法的患者非常接近。[94]Abraham-Nordling M, Torring O, Hamberger B, et al. Graves' disease: a long-term quality-of-life follow up of patients randomized to treatment with antithyroid drugs, radioiodine, or surgery. Thyroid. 2005 Nov;15(11):1279-86.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16356093?tool=bestpractice.com
抗甲状腺药物
抗甲状腺药物有两种使用方式:[95]Abraham P, Avenell A, McGeoch SC, et al. Antithyroid drug regimen for treating Graves' hyperthyroidism. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010 Jan 20;(1):CD003420.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD003420.pub4/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20091544?tool=bestpractice.com
长时间使用(一般为 12-18 个月 [
]In people with Graves' hyperthyroidism, what are the benefits and harms of different antithyroid drug regimens?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.51/full显示答案,但偶尔会更长)以控制甲状腺功能亢进,从而缓解基础自身免疫性过程,或
作为辅助疗法,在进行手术或放射性碘(在必要时)治疗之前使甲状腺功能恢复正常。
这些药物阻断甲状腺激素合成。该组药物包括卡比马唑、甲巯咪唑和丙基硫氧嘧啶 (PTU)。PTU 还抑制外周血 T4 向 T3 的转换。对于重度甲状腺功能亢进症(“危象”)的患者,这可能在治疗的前几周内有益;但甲巯咪唑是更强效的药物,与 PTU 相比,可以提早数周使 T3 更迅速地恢复到正常范围。除非甲状腺功能亢进症病情较轻,否则通常在开始时给予较大剂量的抗甲状腺药,然后根据生化指标的反应,调整至较低的维持剂量。也可以持续给予大剂量抗甲状腺药物,然后在患者甲状腺功能恢复正常时给予左甲状腺素作为补充治疗,一般是在开始治疗后 4 至 8 周进行(也就是“阻滞和替代”方法)。[96]Razvi S, Vaidya B, Perros P, et al. What is the evidence behind the evidence-base? The premature death of block-replace antithyroid drug regimens for Graves' disease. Eur J Endocrinol. 2006 Jun;154(6):783-6.http://www.eje-online.org/content/154/6/783.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16728536?tool=bestpractice.com “阻滞和替代”治疗策略在美国不如在欧洲常用。美国甲状腺协会 (American Thyroid Association) 在其 2016 年指南中指出,该方法一般不推荐,因为事实表明它会导致抗甲状腺药物副作用发生率升高。[89]Ross DS, Burch HB, Cooper DS, et al. 2016 American Thyroid Association guidelines for diagnosis and management of hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis. Thyroid. 2016 Oct;26(10):1343-421.http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/thy.2016.0229http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27521067?tool=bestpractice.comPTU 由于具有肝脏毒性而受到来自美国 FDA 的警告;初始时,应对所有患者使用甲巯咪唑,但应除外早期妊娠女性,因为这种药物与出生缺陷增加相关。US FDA safety communication: PTU 据报道,完成全部疗程后的复发率介于 50% 和 70% 之间,[97]Abraham P, Avenel A, Park CM, et al. A systematic review of drug therapy for Graves' hyperthyroidism. Eur J Endocrinol. 2005 Oct;153(4):489-98.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16189168?tool=bestpractice.com 但在碘缺乏地区,复发率可能更低。[98]Azizi F. The safety and efficacy of antithyroid drugs. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2006 Jan;5(1):107-16.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16370960?tool=bestpractice.com
对于儿童,很多人将抗甲状腺药物治疗视为首选,但在使用这种药物治疗后 1 至 2 年,复发率约为 70%。[99]Glaser NS, Styne DM; Organization of Pediatric Endocrinologists of Northern California Collaborative Graves' Disease Study Group. Predicting the likelihood of remission in children with Graves' disease: a prospective, multicenter study. Pediatrics. 2008 Mar;121(3):e481-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18267979?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,长期治疗(8 到 10 年)可达到 50% 的缓解率。[100]Leger J, Gelwane G, Kaguelidou F, et al; French Childhood Graves' Disease Study Group. Positive impact of long-term antithyroid drug treatment on the outcome of children with Graves' disease: national long-term cohort study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012 Jan;97(1):110-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22031519?tool=bestpractice.com 在这些病例中,在成年之前采用低剂量药物治疗是恰当的,此后应考虑手术(仅由经验丰富的儿外科医生主刀)或放射性碘治疗。[101]Kaguelidou F, Carel JC, Léger J. Graves' disease in childhood: advances in management with antithyroid drug therapy. Horm Res. 2009;71(6):310-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19506387?tool=bestpractice.com
抗甲状腺药物有一些副作用。[102]Otsuka F, Noh JY, Chino T, et al. Hepatotoxicity and cutaneous reactions after antithyroid drug administration. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2012 Aug;77(2):310-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22332800?tool=bestpractice.com 7% 至 12% 的患者出现皮疹,如果为轻度,可以使用抗组胺药治疗。[97]Abraham P, Avenel A, Park CM, et al. A systematic review of drug therapy for Graves' hyperthyroidism. Eur J Endocrinol. 2005 Oct;153(4):489-98.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16189168?tool=bestpractice.com 粒细胞缺乏症是一种罕见的副作用,见于 0.1% 至 0.5% 的患者。[103]Nakamura H, Miyauchi A, Miyawaki N, et al. Analysis of 754 cases of antithyroid drug-induced agranulocytosis over 30 years in Japan. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013 Dec;98(12):4776-83.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24057289?tool=bestpractice.com 应当教育和警告所有服用抗甲状腺药物的患者关于粒细胞缺乏症的早期症状,告知他们如果发生这些症状,应当停止服药并紧急就医。[104]Robinson J, Richardson M, Hickey J, et al. Patient knowledge of antithyroid drug-induced agranulocytosis. Eur Thyroid J. 2014 Dec;3(4):245-51.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4311297/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25759801?tool=bestpractice.com 在使用抗甲状腺药物治疗的患者中,大约 3% 的患者发生有症状的抗中性粒细胞胞浆抗体 (antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody, ANCA) 阳性小血管炎;如果使用 PTU、患者较年轻和疗程延长,则发病风险更高。[105]Balavoine AS, Glinoer D, Dubucquoi S, et al. Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-positive small-vessel vasculitis associated with antithyroid drug therapy: how significant is the clinical problem? Thyroid. 2015 Dec;25(12):1273-81.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26414658?tool=bestpractice.com 如果抗甲状腺药物治疗因副作用必须停药或一个疗程后复发,可采用放射性碘治疗,或者对某些病例施行外科甲状腺切除术。某些患者更愿意接受长期抗甲状腺药物治疗。
放射性碘疗法
对于 Graves 病,放射性碘疗法是安全、有效、性价比高的治疗。与甲巯咪唑治疗相比,它与甲状腺功能亢进复发率的降低有关,不过尚不确定其效果强弱。[106]Ma C, Xie J, Wang H, et al. Radioiodine therapy versus antithyroid medications for Graves' disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Feb 18;(2):CD010094.http://cochranelibrary-wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD010094.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26891370?tool=bestpractice.com主要的后遗症是永久性甲状腺功能减退,需要终身使用甲状腺素补充治疗。[2]Smith TJ, Hegedüs L. Graves' disease. N Engl J Med. 2016 Oct 20;375(16):1552-65.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27797318?tool=bestpractice.com[107]Fatourechi V. Medical treatment of Graves' ophthalmopathy. Ophthalmol Clin North Am. 2000;13:683-91. 使用放射性碘后,应避免甲状腺功能减退,因为该病是眼眶病出现或进展的一个危险因素。[108]Tallstedt L, Lundell G, Blomgren H, et al. Does early administration of thyroxine reduce the development of Graves' ophthalmopathy after radioiodine treatment? Eur J Endocrinol. 1994 May;130(5):494-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8180678?tool=bestpractice.com
妊娠期以及哺乳期禁用放射性碘,对于活动性眼眶病患者,认为这不是一项好的选择。[89]Ross DS, Burch HB, Cooper DS, et al. 2016 American Thyroid Association guidelines for diagnosis and management of hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis. Thyroid. 2016 Oct;26(10):1343-421.http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/thy.2016.0229http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27521067?tool=bestpractice.com[63]Bartalena L, Baldeschi L, Boboridis K, et al. The 2016 European Thyroid Association/European Group on Graves' Orbitopathy guidelines for the management of Graves' orbitopathy. Eur Thyroid J. 2016 Mar;5(1):9-26.http://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/443828#http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27099835?tool=bestpractice.com
研究已发现,在接受放射性碘疗法后,15%-38% 的患者发生眼病或出现眼病加重。[109]Tallstedt L, Lundell G, Torring O, et al. Occurance of ophthalmopathy after treatment for Graves’ hyperthyroidism: the Thyroid Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1992 Jun 25;326(26):1733-8.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199206253262603#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1489388?tool=bestpractice.com[110]Bartalena L, Tanda ML, Piantanida E, et al. Relationship between management of hyperthyroidism and course of the ophthalmopathy. J Endocrinol Invest. 2004 Mar;27(3):288-94.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15165006?tool=bestpractice.com[106]Ma C, Xie J, Wang H, et al. Radioiodine therapy versus antithyroid medications for Graves' disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Feb 18;(2):CD010094.http://cochranelibrary-wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD010094.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26891370?tool=bestpractice.com这可以通过同时使用皮质类固醇疗法来预防,特别是针对已有轻度或中度眼病的患者。[110]Bartalena L, Tanda ML, Piantanida E, et al. Relationship between management of hyperthyroidism and course of the ophthalmopathy. J Endocrinol Invest. 2004 Mar;27(3):288-94.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15165006?tool=bestpractice.com[111]Li HX, Xiang N, Hu WK, et al. Relation between therapy options for Graves' disease and the course of Graves' ophthalmopathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Endocrinol Invest. 2016 Nov;39(11):1225-33.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27220843?tool=bestpractice.com对于非活动性眼病患者或者没有证据显示存在眼病的患者,在放射性碘治疗后,不使用皮质类固醇,进行观察是合理的。对于活动性眼病患者,在没有禁忌证且甲状腺功能亢进的其他治疗选项不合适或已经失败时,可以给予皮质类固醇。[63]Bartalena L, Baldeschi L, Boboridis K, et al. The 2016 European Thyroid Association/European Group on Graves' Orbitopathy guidelines for the management of Graves' orbitopathy. Eur Thyroid J. 2016 Mar;5(1):9-26.http://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/443828#http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27099835?tool=bestpractice.com[112]Bartalena L. The dilemma of how to manage Graves' hyperthyroidism in patients with associated orbitopathy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011 Mar;96(3):592-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21190983?tool=bestpractice.com通常的方案采用短期泼尼松龙治疗,在 2-3 个月的时间内逐渐减量。应与患者讨论风险和益处。然而,如果眼病为非活动性并且放射性碘治疗后低甲状腺素血症得到预防,则使用放射性碘疗法但不使用皮质类固醇,不会对眼病的病程有负面影响。[113]Perros P, Kendall-Taylor P, Neoh C, et al. A prospective study of the effects of radioiodine therapy for hyperthyroidism in patients with minimally active graves' ophthalmopathy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005 Sep;90(9):5321-3.https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/90/9/5321/2838714http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15985483?tool=bestpractice.com
由于需要采取放射预防措施,所以放射性碘的使用可能遭遇后勤障碍:[114]Sisson JC, Freitas J, McDougall IR, et al; American Thyroid Association Taskforce on Radioiodine Safety. Radiation safety in the treatment of patients with thyroid diseases by radioiodine 131I: practice recommendations of the American Thyroid Association. Thyroid. 2011 Apr;21(4):335-46.http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/pdf/10.1089/thy.2010.0403http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21417738?tool=bestpractice.com 例如,父母可能无法或者不愿远离年幼的子女,或者大小便失禁的老年患者可能对其照护者构成不可接受的风险。
手术
有以下情形的人群可能会首选手术:计划在 6 个月内怀孕且甲状腺激素水平正常的女性;有症状的压迫或大甲状腺肿;放射性碘摄取率相对较低;确诊或疑似有甲状腺恶性肿瘤的病例;大甲状腺结节;需要手术的并存甲状旁腺功能亢进;以及有中至重度活动性 Graves 病的患者。[89]Ross DS, Burch HB, Cooper DS, et al. 2016 American Thyroid Association guidelines for diagnosis and management of hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis. Thyroid. 2016 Oct;26(10):1343-421.http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/thy.2016.0229http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27521067?tool=bestpractice.com
手术前,患者服用抗甲状腺药物做术前准备,直到甲状腺功能正常。一些临床医生在手术前 7 至 10 天对患者使用药理剂量的碘以减少甲状腺血管分布,从而减少术中失血。[115]Whalen G, Sullivan M, Maranda L, et al. Randomized trial of a short course of preoperative potassium iodide in patients undergoing thyroidectomy for Graves' disease. Am J Surg. 2017 Apr;213(4):805-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27769543?tool=bestpractice.com 碘可能抑制胎儿甲状腺功能,以至于导致甲状腺肿甚至呆小症,所以在妊娠全程禁用碘治疗。对有经验的熟手来说,术后甲状旁腺功能减退和声带麻痹(喉返神经损伤)的发生率分别为大约 2% 和 1%。[116]Roher HD, Goretzki PE, Hellmann P, et al. Complications in thyroid surgery: incidence and therapy [in German]. Chirurg. 1999 Sep;70(9):999-1010.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10501664?tool=bestpractice.com 术中监测喉返神经是否能减少并发症存在争议。[117]Barczynski M, Konturek A, Stopa M, et al. Randomized controlled trial of visualization versus neuromonitoring of the external branch of the superior laryngeal nerve during thyroidectomy. World J Surg. 2012 Jun;36(6):1340-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3348444/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22402975?tool=bestpractice.com[118]Cavicchi O, Caliceti U, Fernandez IJ, et al. Laryngeal neuromonitoring and neurostimulation versus neurostimulation alone in thyroid surgery: a randomized clinical trial. Head Neck. 2012 Feb;34(2):141-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21469244?tool=bestpractice.com 儿童出现手术并发症的几率高于成人,年龄越小,几率越高。[119]Sosa JA, Tuggle CT, Wang TS, et al. Clinical and economic outcomes of thyroid and parathyroid surgery in children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008 Aug;93(8):3058-65.http://jcem.endojournals.org/content/93/8/3058.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18522977?tool=bestpractice.com 其他手术风险包括出血、感染和疤痕形成。优选甲状腺完全切除术或甲状腺近全切除术而不是双侧甲状腺次全切除术,因为前者可预防甲状腺功能亢进症复发;假如手术时患者甲状腺功能正常,术后立即开始甲状腺素治疗。[120]Stålberg P, Svensson A, Hessman O, et al. Surgical treatment of Graves' disease: evidence-based approach. World J Surg. 2008 Jul;32(7):1269-77.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18327526?tool=bestpractice.com[121]Barczynski M, Konturek A, Hubalewska-Dydejczyk A, et al. Randomized clinical trial of bilateral subtotal thyroidectomy versus total thyroidectomy for Graves' disease with a 5-year follow-up. Br J Surg. 2012 Apr;99(4):515-22.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22287122?tool=bestpractice.com
甲状腺外表现
Graves 眼眶病患者经常被误诊和延迟诊断。DiaGO(Graves 眼眶病诊断)测试是一项 20 分的评估工具,可由临床医生(包括非眼科医生)使用,可以帮助鉴别 Graves 眼眶病患者。[61]Mitchell AL, Goss L, Mathiopoulou L, et al. Diagnosis of Graves' orbitopathy (DiaGO): results of a pilot study to assess the utility of an office tool for practicing endocrinologists. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2015 Mar;100(3):E458-62.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25485725?tool=bestpractice.com 对眼眶病的活动性和严重程度进行评估和分类也很重要,因为这有助于指导治疗。活动性疾病最好使用免疫抑制药物进行治疗,而非活动性疾病最好使用康复手术治疗。应根据疾病严重程度评估治疗的益处和危害。[122]Wiersinga WM, Perros P, Kahaly GJ, et al; European Group on Graves' Orbitopathy (EUGOGO). Clinical assessment of patients with Graves’ orbitopathy: the European Group on Graves’ Orbitopathy recommendations to generalists, specialists and clinical researchers. Eur J Endocrinol. 2006 Sep;155(3):387-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16914591?tool=bestpractice.com 已经发布的指南提供了初始评估和管理建议。[62]Perros P, Dayan CM, Dickinson AJ, et al. Management of patients with Graves' orbitopathy: initial assessment, management outside specialised centres and referral pathways. Clin Med (Lond). 2015 Apr;15(2):173-8.http://www.clinmed.rcpjournal.org/content/15/2/173.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25824071?tool=bestpractice.com[63]Bartalena L, Baldeschi L, Boboridis K, et al. The 2016 European Thyroid Association/European Group on Graves' Orbitopathy guidelines for the management of Graves' orbitopathy. Eur Thyroid J. 2016 Mar;5(1):9-26.http://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/443828#http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27099835?tool=bestpractice.com 轻度活动性眼眶病患者可以使用简单措施处理,例如使用润滑性滴眼液和软膏,或太阳镜用于眼睛表面症状,或棱镜用于复视。这些措施可改善症状和生活质量。患者还可能受益于 6 个月疗程的硒补充剂。[123]Marcocci C, Kahaly GJ, Krassas GE, et al. Selenium and the course of mild Graves' orbitopathy. N Engl J Med. 2011 May 19;364(20):1920-31.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1012985#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21591944?tool=bestpractice.com 活动性中度至重度和危及视力的眼眶病患者应当接受多学科专家团队治疗,包括眼科医生和内分泌专科医生;一线治疗选择是静脉皮质类固醇(例如甲基泼尼松龙)脉冲疗法。[124]Zang S, Ponto KA, Kahaly GJ. Clinical review: intravenous glucocorticoids for Graves' orbitopathy: efficacy and morbidity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011 Feb;96(2):320-32.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21239515?tool=bestpractice.com[125]Bartalena L, Krassas GE, Wiersinga W, et al. Efficacy and safety of three different cumulative doses of intravenous methylprednisolone for moderate to severe and active Graves' orbitopathy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012 Dec;97(12):4454-63.https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/97/12/4454/2536457http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23038682?tool=bestpractice.com 眼眶放射治疗(联合或不联合皮质类固醇治疗)也可用于中度至重度活动性眼病;有限的证据表明,眼眶放射治疗可预防压迫性视神经病变。[126]Chundury RV, Weber AC, Perry JD. Orbital radiation therapy in thyroid eye disease. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg. 2016 Mar-Apr;32(2):83-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26325378?tool=bestpractice.com[127]Rajendram R, Bunce C, Lee RW, et al. Orbital radiotherapy for adult thyroid eye disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012 Jul 11;(7):CD007114.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD007114.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22786503?tool=bestpractice.com[128]Tanda ML, Bartalena L. Efficacy and safety of orbital radiotherapy for Graves' orbitopathy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012 Nov;97(11):3857-65.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22962421?tool=bestpractice.com 当疾病为非活动性时,康复手术对中度至重度和危及生命的眼病也有重要作用。
对于视神经病变,应使用非常高剂量的静脉用皮质类固醇进行紧急治疗。[63]Bartalena L, Baldeschi L, Boboridis K, et al. The 2016 European Thyroid Association/European Group on Graves' Orbitopathy guidelines for the management of Graves' orbitopathy. Eur Thyroid J. 2016 Mar;5(1):9-26.http://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/443828#http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27099835?tool=bestpractice.com 对非常高剂量的静脉皮质类固醇初始治疗反应良好的患者可以转换为静脉皮质类固醇脉冲疗法。然而,如果皮质类固醇失败,建议实施眼眶减压手术。[129]Boboridis KG, Bunce C. Surgical orbital decompression for thyroid eye disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011 Dec 7;(12):CD007630.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD007630.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22161415?tool=bestpractice.com 并且,应当鼓励吸烟的 Graves 眼眶病患者戒烟。
在儿童中,眼病经常为轻度,一旦甲状腺功能恢复正常状态,通常就会康复。对于这部分患者,采取“观察和等待”策略可能是恰当的。危及视力的特征(例如视神经病变、角膜破溃)是儿童中少见的并发症,可能需立即进行手术干预。这种情况下需要多学科(包括儿科内分泌学和眼科学)医生参与。[130]Szczapa-Jagustyn J, Gotz-Więckowska A, Kocięcki J. An update on thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy in children and adolescents. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2016 Oct 1;29(10):1115-22.https://www.degruyter.com/view/j/jpem.2016.29.issue-10/jpem-2016-0122/jpem-2016-0122.xmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27682712?tool=bestpractice.com
皮肤病最好使用外用皮质类固醇治疗,尤其是如果患者有明显的症状时。[5]Fatourechi V. Pretibial myxedema: pathophysiology and treatment options. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2005;6(5):295-309.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16252929?tool=bestpractice.com[131]Vannucchi G, Campi I, Covelli D, et al. Treatment of pretibial myxedema with dexamethazone injected subcutaneously by mesotherapy needles. Thyroid. 2013 May;23(5):626-32.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23397966?tool=bestpractice.com 如果存在持续、大范围和/或棘手的皮肤病,应当请皮肤科医生会诊。目前尚无针对杵状指的治疗。
妊娠期治疗
孕妇的抗甲状腺药物治疗方法不同于非妊娠成年人。[132]Alexander EK, Pearce EN, Brent GA, et al. 2017 Guidelines of the American Thyroid Association for the diagnosis and management of thyroid disease during pregnancy and the postpartum. Thyroid. 2017 Mar;27(3):315-89.http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1089/thy.2016.0457http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28056690?tool=bestpractice.com[133]Azizi F, Amouzegar A. Management of hyperthyroidism during pregnancy and lactation. Eur J Endocrinol. 2011 Jun;164(6):871-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21389085?tool=bestpractice.com抗甲状腺药物可通过胎盘,并影响胎儿甲状腺功能;因此,应尽可能使用最低剂量的抗甲状腺药物。治疗目标是使血清游离 T4 水平处于或略高于妊娠期的正常范围。[132]Alexander EK, Pearce EN, Brent GA, et al. 2017 Guidelines of the American Thyroid Association for the diagnosis and management of thyroid disease during pregnancy and the postpartum. Thyroid. 2017 Mar;27(3):315-89.http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1089/thy.2016.0457http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28056690?tool=bestpractice.com因此,对于很多在妊娠期间出现轻度甲状腺功能亢进的女性,只是进行严密监测,而不给予治疗。不过,来自一项基于人群的前瞻性队列研究的数据表明,轻度母体甲状腺毒症对子女的 IQ 有负面影响。[134]Korevaar TI, Muetzel R, Medici M, et al. Association of maternal thyroid function during early pregnancy with offspring IQ and brain morphology in childhood: a population-based prospective cohort study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2016 Jan;4(1):35-43.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26497402?tool=bestpractice.com
在妊娠期间禁用放射性碘治疗。抗甲状腺药物可用于妊娠患者。仅在妊娠早期首选 PTU 而非甲巯咪唑,因为甲巯咪唑与出生缺陷有关。尽管抗甲状腺药物与出生缺陷有关联,但较 PTU 而言,甲巯咪唑导致的出生缺陷更常见且更严重。[135]Andersen SL, Olsen J, Wu CS, et al. Birth defects after early pregnancy use of antithyroid drugs: a Danish nationwide study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013 Nov;98(11):4373-81.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24151287?tool=bestpractice.com[136]Andersen SL, Olsen J, Wu CS, et al. Severity of birth defects after propylthiouracil exposure in early pregnancy. Thyroid. 2014 Oct;24(10):1533-40.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4195247/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24963758?tool=bestpractice.com2017 年美国甲状腺协会 (American Thyroid Association) 妊娠期甲状腺疾病管理指南指出,可以考虑在妊娠早期后停用 PTU 并改为使用甲巯咪唑,以降低母体发生肝衰竭的风险。但由于没有充分的证据,未给出建议。[132]Alexander EK, Pearce EN, Brent GA, et al. 2017 Guidelines of the American Thyroid Association for the diagnosis and management of thyroid disease during pregnancy and the postpartum. Thyroid. 2017 Mar;27(3):315-89.http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1089/thy.2016.0457http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28056690?tool=bestpractice.com 治疗可持续 12-18 个月。据报道,完成全部疗程后的复发率介于 50% 和 70% 之间。[97]Abraham P, Avenel A, Park CM, et al. A systematic review of drug therapy for Graves' hyperthyroidism. Eur J Endocrinol. 2005 Oct;153(4):489-98.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16189168?tool=bestpractice.com 在妊娠晚期,20%-30% 的女性可停用抗甲状腺药物治疗。[132]Alexander EK, Pearce EN, Brent GA, et al. 2017 Guidelines of the American Thyroid Association for the diagnosis and management of thyroid disease during pregnancy and the postpartum. Thyroid. 2017 Mar;27(3):315-89.http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1089/thy.2016.0457http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28056690?tool=bestpractice.com
据悉,低至中等剂量的抗甲状腺药物对哺乳期妇女的婴儿是安全的。[132]Alexander EK, Pearce EN, Brent GA, et al. 2017 Guidelines of the American Thyroid Association for the diagnosis and management of thyroid disease during pregnancy and the postpartum. Thyroid. 2017 Mar;27(3):315-89.http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1089/thy.2016.0457http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28056690?tool=bestpractice.com
对于已使用抗甲状腺药物治疗 Graves 病的女性和准备妊娠的女性,应改为使用 PTU(如果正在使用卡比马唑治疗)。如果确认妊娠且疾病似乎有所缓解(TSH 受体抗体较低或呈阴性),可停用抗甲状腺药物并重复进行甲状腺功能检测。[132]Alexander EK, Pearce EN, Brent GA, et al. 2017 Guidelines of the American Thyroid Association for the diagnosis and management of thyroid disease during pregnancy and the postpartum. Thyroid. 2017 Mar;27(3):315-89.http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1089/thy.2016.0457http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28056690?tool=bestpractice.com
抗甲状腺药物有一些副作用。[102]Otsuka F, Noh JY, Chino T, et al. Hepatotoxicity and cutaneous reactions after antithyroid drug administration. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2012 Aug;77(2):310-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22332800?tool=bestpractice.com 7% 至 12% 的患者出现皮疹,[97]Abraham P, Avenel A, Park CM, et al. A systematic review of drug therapy for Graves' hyperthyroidism. Eur J Endocrinol. 2005 Oct;153(4):489-98.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16189168?tool=bestpractice.com 0.1%-0.5% 的患者出现粒细胞缺乏症。[103]Nakamura H, Miyauchi A, Miyawaki N, et al. Analysis of 754 cases of antithyroid drug-induced agranulocytosis over 30 years in Japan. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013 Dec;98(12):4776-83.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24057289?tool=bestpractice.com应当教育和告知服用抗甲状腺药物的患者关于粒细胞缺乏症的早期症状,建议他们如果发生这些症状,应当停止服药,紧急就医。[104]Robinson J, Richardson M, Hickey J, et al. Patient knowledge of antithyroid drug-induced agranulocytosis. Eur Thyroid J. 2014 Dec;3(4):245-51.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4311297/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25759801?tool=bestpractice.com 如果妊娠期间因药物副作用而停用抗甲状腺药物,对于有症状的患者来说,在妊娠中期实施甲状腺切除术是唯一的另一选择。US FDA safety communication: PTU
对儿童患者的治疗
对于治疗儿童 Graves 甲状腺功能亢进,抗甲状腺药物、放射性碘和手术都是有效且相对安全的治疗选择。
对于儿童,很多人将抗甲状腺药物治疗视为首选,但在使用这种药物治疗后 1 至 2 年,复发率约为 70%。[99]Glaser NS, Styne DM; Organization of Pediatric Endocrinologists of Northern California Collaborative Graves' Disease Study Group. Predicting the likelihood of remission in children with Graves' disease: a prospective, multicenter study. Pediatrics. 2008 Mar;121(3):e481-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18267979?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,长期治疗(8 到 10 年)可达到 50% 的缓解率。[100]Leger J, Gelwane G, Kaguelidou F, et al; French Childhood Graves' Disease Study Group. Positive impact of long-term antithyroid drug treatment on the outcome of children with Graves' disease: national long-term cohort study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012 Jan;97(1):110-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22031519?tool=bestpractice.com 在这些病例中,在成年之前采用低剂量药物治疗是恰当的,此后应考虑手术(仅由经验丰富的儿外科医生主刀)或放射性碘治疗。[101]Kaguelidou F, Carel JC, Léger J. Graves' disease in childhood: advances in management with antithyroid drug therapy. Horm Res. 2009;71(6):310-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19506387?tool=bestpractice.com PTU 能在儿童中造成威胁生命的肝损伤,这种风险是不可接受的,因此只能在很罕见的情况下短期使用(例如,在等待甲状腺切除术时)该药。US FDA safety communication: PTU
2016 年美国甲状腺协会指南建议 5 岁以下儿童避免使用放射性碘。对于 5-10 岁的部分儿童,可选择使用。[89]Ross DS, Burch HB, Cooper DS, et al. 2016 American Thyroid Association guidelines for diagnosis and management of hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis. Thyroid. 2016 Oct;26(10):1343-421.http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/thy.2016.0229http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27521067?tool=bestpractice.com
β-受体阻滞剂可用于改善肾上腺素能症状,例如心动过速、震颤和焦虑。如果有哮喘、心动过缓或心脏传导阻滞病史,不适用 β-受体阻滞剂。[2]Smith TJ, Hegedüs L. Graves' disease. N Engl J Med. 2016 Oct 20;375(16):1552-65.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27797318?tool=bestpractice.com 在疗程早期使用,可用于缓解症状、术前准备和处理甲状腺危象。[2]Smith TJ, Hegedüs L. Graves' disease. N Engl J Med. 2016 Oct 20;375(16):1552-65.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27797318?tool=bestpractice.com[137]Reinhardt MJ, Brink I, Joe AY, et al. Radioiodine therapy in Graves' disease based on tissue-absorbed dose calculations: effect of pre-treatment thyroid volume on clinical outcome. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2002 Sep;29(9):1118-24.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12192554?tool=bestpractice.com在放射性碘疗法后可使用这些药物,直至甲状腺功能恢复正常。特异性疗法见效后,逐渐减小剂量。[2]Smith TJ, Hegedüs L. Graves' disease. N Engl J Med. 2016 Oct 20;375(16):1552-65.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27797318?tool=bestpractice.com 忌用 β 受体阻滞剂时,钙通道阻滞剂是替代品。
对于适合手术的患者,服用抗甲状腺药物做术前准备,直到甲状腺功能正常。一些门诊在手术前 7 至 10 天对患者使用药理剂量的碘(例如 Lugol 溶液和 SSKI)以减少甲状腺的血管分布。对症治疗通常使用 β 受体阻滞剂,当 β 受体阻滞剂不被耐受时,钙通道阻滞剂是一种替代药物。
儿童出现手术并发症的几率高于成人,年龄越小,几率越高。[119]Sosa JA, Tuggle CT, Wang TS, et al. Clinical and economic outcomes of thyroid and parathyroid surgery in children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008 Aug;93(8):3058-65.http://jcem.endojournals.org/content/93/8/3058.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18522977?tool=bestpractice.com 首选甲状腺完全切除术或甲状腺近全切除术而不是双侧甲状腺次全切除术,因为它可以预防甲状腺功能亢进症复发;如果手术时患者甲状腺功能正常,术后立即开始甲状腺素补充治疗。[121]Barczynski M, Konturek A, Hubalewska-Dydejczyk A, et al. Randomized clinical trial of bilateral subtotal thyroidectomy versus total thyroidectomy for Graves' disease with a 5-year follow-up. Br J Surg. 2012 Apr;99(4):515-22.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22287122?tool=bestpractice.com[138]Thompson GB. Surgical management in Graves' disease. Panminerva Med. 2002 Dec;44(4):287-93.[139]Barakate MS, Agarwal G, Reeve TS, et al. Total thyroidectomy is now the preferred option for the surgical management of Graves' disease. ANZ J Surg. 2002 May;72(5):321-4.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12028087?tool=bestpractice.com