克氏锥虫存在森林(发生于野生动物中)、住所周围和家庭循环性。锥蝽适应人类住所,然后将锥虫通过家畜传播至人类和人群间的方式来维系其家庭循环性。[1]Coura JR, Dias JC. Epidemiology, control and surveillance of Chagas disease - 100 years after its discovery. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104(suppl 1):31-40.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762009000900006&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19753455?tool=bestpractice.com[83]Coura JR. The main sceneries of Chagas disease transmission: the vectors, blood and oral transmissions - a comprehensive review. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2015;110:277-282.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762014005040362&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25466622?tool=bestpractice.com[84]Prata A. Clinical and epidemiological aspects of Chagas disease. Lancet Infect Dis. 2001;1:92-100.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11871482?tool=bestpractice.com丛林传播循环是由锥蝽和野生动物来维系的。[85]Rademaker V, Herrera HM, Raffel TR, et al. What is the role of small rodents in the transmission cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi and Trypanosoma evansi (Kinetoplastida Trypanosomatidae)? A study case in the Brazilian Pantanal. Acta Trop. 2009;111:102-107.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19467452?tool=bestpractice.com[86]Lisboa CV, Pinho AP, Monteiro RV, et al. Trypanosoma cruzi (kinetoplastida Trypanosomatidae): biological heterogeneity in the isolates derived from wild hosts. Exp Parasitol. 2007;116:150-155.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17274984?tool=bestpractice.com[87]Herrera L, D'Andrea PS, Xavier SC, et al. Trypanosoma cruzi infection in wild mammals of the National Park 'Serra da Capivara' and its surroundings (Piaui, Brazil), an area endemic for Chagas disease. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2005;99:379-388.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15780345?tool=bestpractice.com[88]Pinho AP, Cupolillo E, Mangia RH, et al. Trypanosoma cruzi in the sylvatic environment: distinct transmission cycles involving two sympatric marsupials. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2000;94:509-514.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11132378?tool=bestpractice.com[89]Botto-Mahan C, Acuna-Retamar M, Campos R, et al. European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) are naturally infected with different Trypanosoma cruzi genotypes. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2009;80:944-946.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19478255?tool=bestpractice.com[90]Santos CD, Toldo MP, Levy AM, et al. Trypanosoma cruzi: effects of social stress in Calomys callosus a natural reservoir of infection. Exp Parasitol. 2008;119:197-201.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18387609?tool=bestpractice.com[91]Pietrzak SM, Pung OJ. Trypanosomiasis in raccoons from Georgia. J Wildl Dis. 1998;34:132-136.http://www.jwildlifedis.org/doi/abs/10.7589/0090-3558-34.1.132http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9476234?tool=bestpractice.com[92]Jansen AM, Madeira F, Carreira JC, et al. Trypanosoma cruzi in the opossum Didelphis marsupialis: a study of the correlations and kinetics of the systemic and scent gland infections in naturally and experimentally infected animals. Exp Parasitol. 1997;86:37-44.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9149239?tool=bestpractice.com[93]Barr SC, Dennis VA, Klei TR. Serologic and blood culture survey of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in four canine populations of southern Louisiana. Am J Vet Res. 1991;52:570-573.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1905115?tool=bestpractice.com[94]Yaeger RG. The prevalence of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in armadillos collected at a site near New Orleans, Louisiana. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1988;38:323-326.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3128127?tool=bestpractice.com在住所周围循环中,感染是由住所周围的锥蝽感染人类住所周围区域的家畜来维系的(偶尔可与丛林传播循环交换,例如狗和猫对野生动物的捕猎,或丛林动物侵入人类居所周围区域)。[95]Roque AL, Xavier SC, da Rocha MG, et al. Trypanosoma cruzi transmission cycle among wild and domestic mammals in three areas of orally transmitted Chagas disease outbreaks. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2008;79:742-749.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18981516?tool=bestpractice.com[96]Roque AL, Xavier SC, Gerhardt M, et al. Trypanosoma cruzi among wild and domestic mammals in different areas of the Abaetetuba municipality (Pará State, Brazil), an endemic Chagas disease transmission area. Vet Parasitol. 2013;193:71-77.http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304401712006139http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23261089?tool=bestpractice.com[97]Roux E, de Fátima Venâncio A, Girres JF, et al. Spatial patterns and eco-epidemiological systems--part II: characterising spatial patterns of the occurrence of the insect vectors of Chagas disease based on remote sensing and field data. Geospat Health. 2011;6:53-64.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22109863?tool=bestpractice.com[98]Roux E, de Fátima Venâncio A, Girres JF, et al. Spatial patterns and eco-epidemiological systems--part I: multi-scale spatial modelling of the occurrence of Chagas disease insect vectors. Geospat Health. 2011;6:41-51.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22109862?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 丛林克氏锥虫宿主:树獭类André Luiz Rodrigues Roque,Laboratório de Biologia de Tripanosomatídeos,Instituto Oswaldo Cruz,Fiocruz,Rio de Janeiro,巴西;授权使用 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 丛林克氏锥虫宿主:南美浣熊类André Luiz Rodrigues Roque,Laboratório de Biologia de Tripanosomatídeos,Instituto Oswaldo Cruz,Fiocruz,Rio de Janeiro,巴西;授权使用 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 丛林克氏锥虫宿主:金狮面狨类André Luiz Rodrigues Roque,Laboratório de Biologia de Tripanosomatídeos,Instituto Oswaldo Cruz,Fiocruz,Rio de Janeiro,巴西;授权使用 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 丛林克氏锥虫宿主:獾臭鼬类André Luiz Rodrigues Roque,Laboratório de Biologia de Tripanosomatídeos,Instituto Oswaldo Cruz,Fiocruz,Rio de Janeiro,巴西;授权使用 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 丛林克氏锥虫宿主:水豚类André Luiz Rodrigues Roque,Laboratório de Biologia de Tripanosomatídeos,Instituto Oswaldo Cruz,Fiocruz,Rio de Janeiro,巴西;授权使用 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 丛林克氏锥虫宿主:隐棘鼠类André Luiz Rodrigues Roque,Laboratório de Biologia de Tripanosomatídeos,Instituto Oswaldo Cruz,Fiocruz,Rio de Janeiro,巴西;授权使用 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 丛林克氏锥虫宿主:东南林负鼠类André Luiz Rodrigues Roque,Laboratório de Biologia de Tripanosomatídeos,Instituto Oswaldo Cruz,Fiocruz,Rio de Janeiro,巴西;授权使用 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 丛林克氏锥虫宿主:大耳负鼠类André Luiz Rodrigues Roque,Laboratório de Biologia de Tripanosomatídeos,Instituto Oswaldo Cruz,Fiocruz,Rio de Janeiro,巴西;授权使用 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 丛林克氏锥虫宿主:南美小田鼠类André Luiz Rodrigues Roque,Laboratório de Biologia de Tripanosomatídeos,Instituto Oswaldo Cruz,Fiocruz,Rio de Janeiro,巴西;授权使用 [Citation ends].鸟类和冷血动物对此种感染有抵抗性。
传统的克氏锥虫传播模式是通过吸血锥蝽臭虫来完成的,此种锥蝽常于晚间吸血。[36]Moncayo A, Silveira AC. Current epidemiological trends for Chagas disease in Latin America and future challenges in epidemiology, surveillance and health policy. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104(suppl 1):17-30.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762009000900005&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19753454?tool=bestpractice.com[99]Costa J, Lorenzo M. Biology, diversity and strategies for the monitoring and control of triatomines - Chagas disease vectors. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104(suppl 1):46-51.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762009000900008&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19753457?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 嗜血锥蝽:广泛分布于美国的媒介种类Cleber Galvao,PhD,Laboratório Nacional e Internacional de Referência em Taxonomia de Triatomíneos,Instituto Oswaldo Cruz,Rio de Janeiro,巴西;授权使用 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 嗜血锥蝽:为墨西哥和中美洲的重要媒介Cleber Galvao,PhD,Laboratório Nacional e Internacional de Referência em Taxonomia de Triatomíneos,Instituto Oswaldo Cruz,Rio de Janeiro,巴西;授权使用 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 作为恰加斯病媒介的锥蝽类Cleber Galvao,PhD,Laboratório Nacional e Internacional de Referência em Taxonomia de Triatomíneos,Instituto Oswaldo Cruz,Rio de Janeiro,巴西;授权使用 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 成年长红锥蝽可通过人类皮肤进行吸血TDR 图像库:WHO,TDR/惠康基金会,ID# 0005367,Sinclair Stammers,2000 年 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 成年长红锥蝽可通过人类皮肤进行吸血TDR 图像库:WHO,TDR/惠康基金会,ID# 0005363,Sinclair Stammers,2000 年 [Citation ends].媒介的传播通过与锥蝽粪便的接触而实现。超过 148 种锥蝽种类被认为是来自于所有该病的流行区域,例如Alberprosenia类;Belminus类;Eratyrus类;Microtriatoma类Panstrongylus类;Psammolestes类;Rhodnius类;Triatoma类。[83]Coura JR. The main sceneries of Chagas disease transmission: the vectors, blood and oral transmissions - a comprehensive review. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2015;110:277-282.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762014005040362&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25466622?tool=bestpractice.com[100]Justi SA, Russo CA, Mallet JR, et al. Molecular phylogeny of Triatomini (Hemiptera: Reduviidae: Triatominae). Parasit Vectors. 2014;7:149.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4021723/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24685273?tool=bestpractice.com美国主要的疾病媒介为锥虫水蛭。[101]Herrera CP, Licon MH, Nation CS, et al. Genotype diversity of Trypanosoma cruzi in small rodents and Triatoma sanguisuga from a rural area in New Orleans, Louisiana. Parasit Vectors. 2015;8:123.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4344744/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25890064?tool=bestpractice.com[102]Waleckx E, Suarez J, Richards B, et al. Triatoma sanguisuga blood meals and potential for Chagas disease, Louisiana, USA. Emerg Infect Dis. 2014;20:2141-2143.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4257814/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25418456?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 嗜血锥蝽:广泛分布于美国的媒介种类Cleber Galvao,PhD,Laboratório Nacional e Internacional de Referência em Taxonomia de Triatomíneos,Instituto Oswaldo Cruz,Rio de Janeiro,巴西;授权使用 [Citation ends].
其他主要的传播模式包括输血;[36]Moncayo A, Silveira AC. Current epidemiological trends for Chagas disease in Latin America and future challenges in epidemiology, surveillance and health policy. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104(suppl 1):17-30.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762009000900005&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19753454?tool=bestpractice.com[83]Coura JR. The main sceneries of Chagas disease transmission: the vectors, blood and oral transmissions - a comprehensive review. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2015;110:277-282.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762014005040362&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25466622?tool=bestpractice.com[103]Castro E. Chagas' disease: lessons from routine donation testing. Transfus Med. 2009;19:16-23.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-3148.2009.00915.x/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19302451?tool=bestpractice.com[104]Otani MM, Vinelli E, Kirchhoff LV, et al. WHO comparative evaluation of serologic assays for Chagas disease. Transfusion. 2009;49:1076-1082.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19290995?tool=bestpractice.com[105]Garcia MN, Murray KO, Hotez PJ, et al. Development of Chagas cardiac manifestations among Texas blood donors. Am J Cardiol. 2015;115:113-117.http://www.ajconline.org/article/S0002-9149(14)01934-1/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25456877?tool=bestpractice.com食入受污染的食物或水;[11]Shikanai-Yasuda MA, Carvalho NB. Oral transmission of Chagas disease. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54:845-852.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/54/6/845.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22238161?tool=bestpractice.com[24]Yoshida N. Molecular mechanisms of Trypanosoma cruzi infection by oral route. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104(suppl 1):101-107.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762009000900015&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19753464?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Pereira KS, Schmidt FL, Guaraldo AM, et al. Chagas' disease as a foodborne illness. J Food Prot. 2009;72:441-446.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19350996?tool=bestpractice.com[26]Nóbrega AA, Garcia MH, Tatto E, et al. Oral transmission of Chagas disease by consumption of açaí palm fruit, Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis. 2009;15:653-655.http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/15/4/08-1450_article.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19331764?tool=bestpractice.com[43]Dias JC. Elimination of Chagas disease transmission: perspectives. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104(suppl 1):41-45.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762009000900007&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19753456?tool=bestpractice.com[83]Coura JR. The main sceneries of Chagas disease transmission: the vectors, blood and oral transmissions - a comprehensive review. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2015;110:277-282.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762014005040362&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25466622?tool=bestpractice.com[106]Cardoso AV, Lescano SA, Amato Neto V, et al. Survival of Trypanosoma cruzi in sugar cane used to prepare juice. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2006;48:287-289.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0036-46652006000500009&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17086319?tool=bestpractice.com[107]Roellig DM, Ellis AE, Yabsley MJ. Oral transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi with opposing evidence for the theory of carnivory. J Parasitol. 2009;95:360-364.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18763853?tool=bestpractice.com[108]Andrade DV, Gollob KJ, Dutra WO. Acute Chagas disease: new global challenges for an old neglected disease. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014;8:e3010.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4117453/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25077613?tool=bestpractice.com以及垂直传播(通过胎盘或产道导致胎儿患先天性疾病)。[43]Dias JC. Elimination of Chagas disease transmission: perspectives. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104(suppl 1):41-45.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762009000900007&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19753456?tool=bestpractice.com[109]Jackson Y, Myers C, Diana A, et al. Congenital transmission of Chagas disease in Latin American immigrants in Switzerland. Emerg Infect Dis. 2009;15:601-603.http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/15/4/08-0438_article.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19331743?tool=bestpractice.com[110]Scapellato PG, Bottaro EG, Rodriguez-Brieschke MT. Mother-child transmission of Chagas disease: could coinfection with human immunodeficiency virus increase the risk? Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2009;42:107-109.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0037-86822009000200002&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19448923?tool=bestpractice.com[111]Luquetti AO, Tavares SBN, Siriano LR, et al. Congenital transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi in central Brazil: a study of 1,211 individuals born to infected mothers. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2015;110:369-376.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S0074-02762015005040410&script=sci_arttexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25993506?tool=bestpractice.com[112]Howard EJ, Xiong X, Carlier Y, et al. Frequency of the congenital transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BJOG. 2014;121:22-33.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1471-0528.12396/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23924273?tool=bestpractice.com次要的传播模式包括器官移植;[16]Pinazo MJ, Miranda B, Rodríguez-Villar C, et al. Recommendations for management of Chagas disease in organ and hematopoietic tissue transplantation programs in nonendemic areas. Transplant Rev (Orlando). 2011;25:91-101.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21530219?tool=bestpractice.com[113]Kun H, Moore A, Mascola L, et al. Transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi by heart transplantation. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:1534-1540.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19400748?tool=bestpractice.com[114]Altclas JD, Barcan L, Nagel C, et al. Organ transplantation and Chagas disease. JAMA. 2008;299:1134-1135.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18334687?tool=bestpractice.com[115]Wallace JA, Miller L, Beavis A, et al. Chagas disease: a proposal for testing policy for solid-organ transplant in the United States. Prog Transplant. 2013;23:272-277.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23996948?tool=bestpractice.com实验室意外;[116]Herwaldt BL. Laboratory-acquired parasitic infections from accidental exposures. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2001;14:659-688.http://cmr.asm.org/content/14/4/659.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11585780?tool=bestpractice.com处理被感染的动物;[1]Coura JR, Dias JC. Epidemiology, control and surveillance of Chagas disease - 100 years after its discovery. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104(suppl 1):31-40.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762009000900006&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19753455?tool=bestpractice.com性行为(通过伤口、精液或月经);[1]Coura JR, Dias JC. Epidemiology, control and surveillance of Chagas disease - 100 years after its discovery. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104(suppl 1):31-40.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762009000900006&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19753455?tool=bestpractice.com以及外伤的感染(接种或经口感染)。[1]Coura JR, Dias JC. Epidemiology, control and surveillance of Chagas disease - 100 years after its discovery. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104(suppl 1):31-40.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762009000900006&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19753455?tool=bestpractice.com
近来,在拉丁美洲国家(主要为巴西)发现该病感染的数量和经口传播的微型传染病有所增加。[11]Shikanai-Yasuda MA, Carvalho NB. Oral transmission of Chagas disease. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54:845-852.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/54/6/845.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22238161?tool=bestpractice.com[26]Nóbrega AA, Garcia MH, Tatto E, et al. Oral transmission of Chagas disease by consumption of açaí palm fruit, Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis. 2009;15:653-655.http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/15/4/08-1450_article.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19331764?tool=bestpractice.com[28]Pan American Health Organization. Guía para vigilancia, prevención, controle y manejo clínico da doença de Chagas aguda transmitida por alimentos [in Portuguese]. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: PANAFTOSA-VP/OPAS/OMS: PAHO/HSD/CD/539.09; 2009:92.http://bvs.panalimentos.org/local/File/Guia_Doenca_Chagas_2009.pdf[43]Dias JC. Elimination of Chagas disease transmission: perspectives. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104(suppl 1):41-45.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762009000900007&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19753456?tool=bestpractice.com[95]Roque AL, Xavier SC, da Rocha MG, et al. Trypanosoma cruzi transmission cycle among wild and domestic mammals in three areas of orally transmitted Chagas disease outbreaks. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2008;79:742-749.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18981516?tool=bestpractice.com[106]Cardoso AV, Lescano SA, Amato Neto V, et al. Survival of Trypanosoma cruzi in sugar cane used to prepare juice. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2006;48:287-289.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0036-46652006000500009&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17086319?tool=bestpractice.com[117]Dias JP, Bastos C, Araujo E, et al. Acute Chagas disease outbreak associated with oral transmission. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2008;41:296-300.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0037-86822008000300014&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18719812?tool=bestpractice.com[118]Shikanai-Yasuda MA, Marcondes CB, Guedes LA, et al. Possible oral transmission of acute Chagas' disease in Brazil. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 1991;33:351-357.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1844961?tool=bestpractice.com据报道,涉及多次急性恰加斯病暴发的人群(常为家族式)均来自该病的流行区域。[11]Shikanai-Yasuda MA, Carvalho NB. Oral transmission of Chagas disease. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54:845-852.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/54/6/845.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22238161?tool=bestpractice.com[27]Pinto AY, Ferreira AG Jr, Valente Vda C, et al. Urban outbreak of acute Chagas disease in Amazon region of Brazil: four-year follow-up after treatment with benznidazole. Rev Panam Salud Publica. 2009;25:77-83.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19341528?tool=bestpractice.com[119]Valente SA, da Costa Valente V, das Neves Pinto AY, et al. Analysis of an acute Chagas disease outbreak in the Brazilian Amazon: human cases, triatomines, reservoir mammals and parasites. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2009;103:291-297.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19118852?tool=bestpractice.com[120]Marcili A, Valente VC, Valente SA, et al. Trypanosoma cruzi in Brazilian Amazonia: Lineages TCI and TCIIa in wild primates, Rhodnius spp. and in humans with Chagas disease associated with oral transmission. Int J Parasitol. 2009;39:615-623.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19041313?tool=bestpractice.com[121]Pinto AY, Valente SA, Valente Vda C, et al. Acute phase of Chagas disease in the Brazilian Amazon region: study of 233 cases from Para, Amapa and Maranhao observed between 1988 and 2005 [in Portuguese]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2008;41:602-614.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19142440?tool=bestpractice.com[122]Coura JR, Junqueira AC, Fernandes O, et al. Emerging Chagas disease in Amazonian Brazil. Trends Parasitol. 2002;18:171-176.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11998705?tool=bestpractice.com[123]Pinto AY, Harada GS, Valente VD, et al. Cardiac attacks in patients with acute Chagas disease in a family micro-outbreak, in Abaetetuba, Brazilian Amazon [in Portuguese]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2001;34:413-419.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11600906?tool=bestpractice.com[124]da Silva Valente SA, da Costa Valente VC, Neto HF. Considerations on the epidemiology and transmission of Chagas disease in the Brazilian Amazon. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 1999;94(suppl 1):395-398.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02761999000700077&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10677763?tool=bestpractice.com更为常见的是,疾病传播是通过食用家庭自制黑浆果、其他棕榈产品和甘蔗汁而发生。然而,疾病也可通过饮用被果汁污染的水以及食用丛林动物的生肉而感染。[11]Shikanai-Yasuda MA, Carvalho NB. Oral transmission of Chagas disease. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54:845-852.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/54/6/845.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22238161?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Pereira KS, Schmidt FL, Guaraldo AM, et al. Chagas' disease as a foodborne illness. J Food Prot. 2009;72:441-446.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19350996?tool=bestpractice.com[26]Nóbrega AA, Garcia MH, Tatto E, et al. Oral transmission of Chagas disease by consumption of açaí palm fruit, Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis. 2009;15:653-655.http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/15/4/08-1450_article.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19331764?tool=bestpractice.com[106]Cardoso AV, Lescano SA, Amato Neto V, et al. Survival of Trypanosoma cruzi in sugar cane used to prepare juice. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2006;48:287-289.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0036-46652006000500009&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17086319?tool=bestpractice.com[117]Dias JP, Bastos C, Araujo E, et al. Acute Chagas disease outbreak associated with oral transmission. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2008;41:296-300.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0037-86822008000300014&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18719812?tool=bestpractice.com[118]Shikanai-Yasuda MA, Marcondes CB, Guedes LA, et al. Possible oral transmission of acute Chagas' disease in Brazil. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 1991;33:351-357.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1844961?tool=bestpractice.com[125]Benchimol Barbosa PR. The oral transmission of Chagas' disease: an acute form of infection responsible for regional outbreaks. Int J Cardiol. 2006;112:132-133.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16600406?tool=bestpractice.com[126]Ferreira CS, Martinho PC, Amato Neto V, et al. Pasteurization of human milk to prevent transmission of Chagas disease. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2001;43:161-162.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0036-46652001000300008&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11452325?tool=bestpractice.com
该病的潜伏期的长短取决于其传播模式。经媒介传播的潜伏期为 4 至 15 天;经输血传播的潜伏期为 30 天或更长;通过摄食被污染的食物或水传播的潜伏期为 3 至 22 天;而意外传播的潜伏期可多达 20 天。垂直传播可发生于妊娠的任何阶段或可发生于患者分娩期。[111]Luquetti AO, Tavares SBN, Siriano LR, et al. Congenital transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi in central Brazil: a study of 1,211 individuals born to infected mothers. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2015;110:369-376.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S0074-02762015005040410&script=sci_arttexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25993506?tool=bestpractice.com[112]Howard EJ, Xiong X, Carlier Y, et al. Frequency of the congenital transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BJOG. 2014;121:22-33.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1471-0528.12396/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23924273?tool=bestpractice.com[127]Bern C, Verastegui M, Gilman RH, et al. Congenital Trypanosoma cruzi transmission in Santa Cruz, Bolivia. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49:1667-1674.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/49/11/1667.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19877966?tool=bestpractice.com
仅有少数病例是通过媒介传播而感染的。然而,由于国内传播媒介的存在增加、全球化以及未来温度的上升,提高了人们关于该病可能在美国流行的认识。[35]Bern C, Montgomery SP. An estimate of the burden of Chagas disease in the United States. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49:e52-e54.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/49/5/e52.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19640226?tool=bestpractice.com[80]Hall CA, Polizzi C, Yabsley MJ, et al. Trypanosoma cruzi prevalence and epidemiologic trends in lemurs on St. Catherines Island, Georgia. J Parasitol. 2007;93:93-96.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17436947?tool=bestpractice.com