Tourette 综合征

Keen-Kim D, Freimer NB. Genetics and epidemiology of Tourette syndrome. J Child Neurol. 2006;21:665-671.

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Mink JW. Neurobiology of basal ganglia and Tourette syndrome: basal ganglia circuits and thalamocortical outputs. Adv Neurol. 2006;99:89-98.

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Whittington C, Pennant M, Kendall T, et al. Practitioner review: treatments for Tourette syndrome in children and young people - a systematic review. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2016 May 2 [Epub ahead of print].

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Verdellen C, van de Griendt J, Hartmann A, et al; European Society for the Study of Tourette Syndrome (ESSTS) Guidelines Group. European clinical guidelines for Tourette syndrome and other tic disorders. Part III: behavioural and psychosocial interventions. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2011;20:197-207.

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Dutta N, Cavanna AE. The effectiveness of habit reversal therapy in the treatment of Tourette syndrome and other chronic tic disorders: a systematic review. Funct Neurol. 2013;28:7-12.

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• 摘要

Roessner V, Plessen KJ, Rothenberger A, et al; European Society for the Study of Tourette Syndrome (ESSTS) Guidelines Group. European clinical guidelines for Tourette syndrome and other tic disorders. Part II: pharmacological treatment. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2011;20:173-196.

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Jimenez-Jimenez FJ, Garcia-Ruiz PJ. Pharmacological options for the treatment of Tourette's disorder. Drugs. 2001;61:2207-2220.

• 摘要

Rizzo R, Gulisano M, Calì PV, et al. Tourette syndrome and comorbid ADHD: current pharmacological treatment options. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2013;17:421-428.

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Müller-Vahl KR, Cath DC, Cavanna AE, et al; European Society for the Study of Tourette Syndrome (ESSTS) Guidelines Group. European clinical guidelines for Tourette syndrome and other tic disorders. Part IV: deep brain stimulation. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2011;20:209-217.

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Nangunoori R, Tomycz ND, Quigley M, et al. Deep brain stimulation for psychiatric diseases: a pooled analysis of published studies employing disease-specific standardized outcome scales. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2013;91:345-354.

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3.  Bloch MH, Peterson BS, Scahill L, et al. Adulthood outcome of tic and obsessive-compulsive symptom severity in children with Tourette syndrome. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2006;160:65-69.

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4.  American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th ed., (DSM-5). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2013.

5.  Kurlan R, Behr J, Medved L, et al. Transient tic disorder and the spectrum of Tourette's syndrome. Arch Neurol. 1988;45:1200-1201.

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6.  Kurlan R, Como PG, Miller B, et al. The behavioral spectrum of tic disorders: a community based study. Neurology. 2002;59:414-420.

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7.  Freeman RD, Fast DK, Burd L, et al. An international perspective on Tourette syndrome: selected findings from 3,500 individuals in 22 countries. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2000;42:436-447.

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8.  Dobbs M, Berger JR. Cervical myelopathy secondary to violent tics of Tourette's syndrome. Neurology. 2003;60:1862-1863.

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9.  Lim S, Rezai KA, Abrams GW, et al. Self-induced, bilateral retinal detachment in Tourette syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol. 2004;122:930-931.

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10.  Hood KK, Baptista-Neto L, Beasley PJ, et al. Case study: severe self-injurious behavior in comorbid Tourette's disorder and OCD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004;43:1298-1303.

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11.  Cheung MY, Shahed J, Jankovic J. Malignant Tourette syndrome. Mov Disord. 2007;22:1743-1750.

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12.  Tanner C. Epidemiology. In: Kurlan R, ed. Handbook of Tourette's syndrome and associated tic and behavioral disorders. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker; 2004:399-410.

13.  Comings DE, Comings BG. Tourette syndrome: clinical and psychological aspects of 250 cases. Am J Hum Genet. 1985;37:435-450.

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14.  Tanner CM, Goldman SM. Epidemiology of Tourette syndrome. Neurol Clin. 1997;15:395-402.

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15.  Scharf JM, Miller LL, Gauvin CA, et al. Population prevalence of Tourette syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Mov Disord. 2015;30:221-228.

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16.  Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Prevalence of diagnosed Tourette syndrome in persons aged 6-17 years - United States. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2009;58:581-585.

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17.  Tourette's Action (UK). What is Tourette syndrome? 2013. http://www.tourettes-action.org.uk/ (last accessed 25 July 2016).

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18.  Freeman RD; Tourette Syndrome International DatabaseConsortium. Tic disorders and ADHD: answers from a world-wide clinical dataset on Tourette syndrome. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;16(suppl 1):15S-23S.

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19.  Pauls DL, Cohen DJ, Heimbuch R. Familial pattern and transmission of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome and multiple tics. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1981;38:1091-1093.

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20.  Keen-Kim D, Freimer NB. Genetics and epidemiology of Tourette syndrome. J Child Neurol. 2006;21:665-671.

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21.  Mataix-Cols D, Isomura K, Pérez-Vigil A, et al. Familial risks of Tourette syndrome and chronic tic disorders: a population-based cohort study. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;72:787-793.

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22.  Price RA, Kidd KK, Cohen DJ, et al. A twin study of Tourette syndrome. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1985;42:815-820.

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23.  Swain JE, Scahill L, Lombroso PJ, et al. Tourette syndrome and tic disorders: a decade of progress. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46:947-968.

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24.  Abelson JF, Kwan KY, O'Roak BJ, et al. Sequence variants in SLITRK1 are associated with Tourette's syndrome. Science. 2005;310:317-320.

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25.  Fabbrini G, Pasquini M, Aurilia C, et al. Large Italian family with Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: clinical study and analysis of the SLITRK1 gene. Mov Disord. 2007;22:2229-2234.

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26.  Scharf JM, Moorjani P, Fagerness J, et al. Lack of association between SLITRK1var321 and Tourette syndrome in a large family-based sample. Neurology. 2008;70:1495-1496.

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27.  Ercan-Sencicek AG, Stillman AA, Ghosh AK, et al. L-histidine decarboxylase and Tourette's syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:1901-1908.

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28.  Peterson BS, Skudlarski P, Anderson AW, et al. A functional magnetic resonance imaging study of tic suppression in Tourette syndrome. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998;55:326-333.

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29.  Minzer K, Lee O, Hong JJ, et al. Increased prefrontal D2 protein in Tourette syndrome: a postmortem analysis of frontal cortex and striatum. J Neurol Sci. 2004;219:55-61.

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30.  Yoon DY, Gause CD, Leckman JF, et al. Frontal dopaminergic abnormality in Tourette syndrome: a postmortem analysis. J Neurol Sci. 2007;255:50-56.

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31.  Mink JW. Neurobiology of basal ganglia and Tourette syndrome: basal ganglia circuits and thalamocortical outputs. Adv Neurol. 2006;99:89-98.

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32.  Leckman JF, Vaccarino FM, Kalanithi PS, et al. Annotation: Tourette syndrome: a relentless drumbeat - driven by misguided brain oscillations. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2006;47:537-550.

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33.  Sukhodolsky DG, Leckman JF, Rothenberger A, et al. The role of abnormal neural oscillations in the pathophysiology of co-occurring Tourette syndrome and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;16(suppl 1):51S-59S.

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34.  Leckman JF, Bloch MH, Smith ME, et al. Neurobiological substrates of Tourette's disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2010;20:237-247.

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35.  de Vries FE, van den Heuvel OA, Cath DC, et al. Limbic and motor circuits involved in symmetry behavior in Tourette's syndrome. CNS Spectr. 2013;18:34-42.

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36.  Hirschtritt ME, Lee PC, Pauls DL, et al. Lifetime prevalence, age of risk, and genetic relationships of comorbid psychiatric disorders in Tourette syndrome. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;72:325-333.

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37.  Crane J, Fagerness J, Osiecki L, et al. Family-based genetic association study of DLGAP3 in Tourette syndrome. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2011;156B:108-114.

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38.  Browne HA, Hansen SN, Buxbaum JD, et al. Familial clustering of tic disorders and obsessive-compulsive disorder. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;72:359-366.

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39.  Lichter DG, Dmochowski J, Jackson LA, et al. Influence of family history on clinical expression of Tourette's syndrome. Neurology. 1999;52:308-316.

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40.  Yu D, Mathews CA, Scharf JM, et al. Cross-disorder genome-wide analyses suggest a complex genetic relationship between Tourette's syndrome and OCD. Am J Psychiatry. 2015;172:82-93.

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41.  Mathews CA, Grados MA. Familiality of Tourette syndrome, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: heritability analysis in a large sib-pair sample. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2011;50:46-54.

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42.  Mathews CA, Bimson B, Lowe TL, et al. Association between maternal smoking and increased symptom severity in Tourette's syndrome. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163:1066-1073.

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43.  Leckman JF, Pauls DL, Peterson BS, et al. Pathogenesis of Tourette syndrome. Clues from the clinical phenotype and natural history. Adv Neurol. 1992;58:15-24.

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44.  Hyde TM, Aaronson BA, Randolph C, et al. Relationship of birth weight to the phenotypic expression of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome in monozygotic twins. Neurology. 1992;42:652-658.

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45.  Conelea CA, Woods DW. The influence of contextual factors on tic expression in Tourette's syndrome: a review. J Psychosom Res. 2008;65:487-496.

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46.  Martino D, Macerollo A, Leckman JF. Neuroendocrine aspects of Tourette syndrome. Int Rev Neurobiol. 2013;112:239-279.

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47.  Rothenberger A, Kostanecka T, Kinkelbur J, et al. Sleep and Tourette syndrome. Adv Neurol. 2001;85:245-259.

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48.  Robertson MM. The Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: the current status. Br J Psychiatry. 1989;154:147-169.

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49.  Singer HS. Tourette's syndrome: from behaviour to biology. Lancet Neurol. 2005;4:149-159.

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50.  Chang K, Frankovich J, Cooperstock M, et al. Clinical evaluation of youth with pediatric acute-onset neuropsychiatric syndrome (PANS): recommendations from the 2013 PANS Consensus Conference. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2015;25:3-13.

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51.  Frankovich J, Thienemann M, Pearlstein J, et al. Multidisciplinary clinic dedicated to treating youth with pediatric acute-onset neuropsychiatric syndrome: presenting characteristics of the first 47 consecutive patients. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2015;25:38-47.

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52.  Murphy TK, Patel PD, McGuire JF, et al. Characterization of the pediatric acute-onset neuropsychiatric syndrome phenotype. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2015;25:14-25.

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53.  Woods DW, Piacentini J, Himle MB, et al. Premonitory Urge for Tics Scale (PUTS): initial psychometric results and examination of the premonitory urge phenomenon in youths with tic disorders. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2005;26:397-403.

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54.  Swedo SE, Leonard HL, Mittleman BB, et al. Identification of children with pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infections by a marker associated with rheumatic fever. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154:110-112.

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55.  Swedo SE, Leckman JF, Rose NR. From research subgroup to clinical syndrome: modifying the PANDAS criteria to describe PANS (Pediatric Acute-onset Neuropsychiatric Syndrome). Pediatr Therapeut. 2012;2:113.

56.  Tourette Syndrome Classification Study Group. Definitions and classification of tic disorders. Arch Neurol. 1993;50:1013-1016.

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57.  Whittington C, Pennant M, Kendall T, et al. Practitioner review: treatments for Tourette syndrome in children and young people - a systematic review. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2016 May 2 [Epub ahead of print].

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58.  Piacentini J, Woods DW, Scahill L, et al. Behavior therapy for children with Tourette disorder: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2010;303:1929-1937.

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59.  Verdellen C, van de Griendt J, Hartmann A, et al; European Society for the Study of Tourette Syndrome (ESSTS) Guidelines Group. European clinical guidelines for Tourette syndrome and other tic disorders. Part III: behavioural and psychosocial interventions. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2011;20:197-207.

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60.  Azrin NH, Nunn RG. Habit reversal: a method of eliminating nervous habits and tics. Behav Res Ther. 1973;11:619-628.

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61.  Deckersbach T, Rauch S, Buhlmann U, et al. Habit reversal versus supportive psychotherapy in Tourette's disorder: a randomized controlled trial and predictors of treatment response. Behav Res Ther. 2006;44:1079-1090.

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62.  Dutta N, Cavanna AE. The effectiveness of habit reversal therapy in the treatment of Tourette syndrome and other chronic tic disorders: a systematic review. Funct Neurol. 2013;28:7-12.

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63.  Hwang GC, Tillberg CS, Scahill L. Habit reversal training for children with Tourette syndrome: update and review. J Child Adolesc Psychiatr Nurs. 2012;25:178-183.

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64.  Jeon S, Walkup JT, Woods DW, et al. Detecting a clinically meaningful change in tic severity in Tourette syndrome: a comparison of three methods. Contemp Clin Trials. 2013;36:414-420.

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65.  McGuire JF, Nyirabahizi E, Kircanski K, et al. A cluster analysis of tic symptoms in children and adults with Tourette syndrome: clinical correlates and treatment outcome. Psychiatry Res. 2013;210:1198-1204.

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66.  McGuire JF, Piacentini J, Brennan EA, et al. A meta-analysis of behavior therapy for Tourette syndrome. J Psychiatr Res. 2014;50:106-112.

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67.  Piacentini J, Woods DW, Scahill Ll, et al. Behavior therapy for children with Tourette disorder: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2010;303:1929-1937.

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68.  Wilhelm S, Peterson AL, Piacentini J, et al. Randomized trial of behavior therapy for adults with Tourette syndrome. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2012;69:795-803.

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69.  Wile DJ, Pringsheim TM. Behavior therapy for Tourette syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Curr Treat Options Neurol. 2013;15:385-395.

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70.  Frank M, Cavanna AE. Behavioural treatments for Tourette syndrome: an evidence-based review. Behav Neurol. 2013;27:105-117.

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71.  Roessner V, Plessen KJ, Rothenberger A, et al; European Society for the Study of Tourette Syndrome (ESSTS) Guidelines Group. European clinical guidelines for Tourette syndrome and other tic disorders. Part II: pharmacological treatment. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2011;20:173-196.

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72.  Waldon K, Hill J, Termine C, et al. Trials of pharmacological interventions for Tourette syndrome: a systematic review. Behav Neurol. 2013;26:265-273.

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73.  Jimenez-Jimenez FJ, Garcia-Ruiz PJ. Pharmacological options for the treatment of Tourette's disorder. Drugs. 2001;61:2207-2220.

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74.  Chen JJ, Ondo WG, Dashtipour K, et al. Tetrabenazine for the treatment of hyperkinetic movement disorders: a review of the literature. Clin Ther. 2012;34:1487-1504.

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75.  Robertson MM. Tourette syndrome, associated conditions and the complexities of treatment. Brain. 2000;123:425-462.

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76.  Panagiotopoulos C, Ronsley R, Elbe D, et al. First do no harm: promoting an evidence-based approach to atypical antipsychotic use in children and adolescents. J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2010;19:124-137.

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77.  Yoo HK, Joung YS, Lee JS, et al. A multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of aripiprazole in children and adolescents with Tourette's disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2013;74:e772-e780.

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78.  De Hert M, Dobbelaere M, Sheridan EM, et al. Metabolic and endocrine adverse effects of second-generation antipsychotics in children and adolescents: a systematic review of randomized, placebo controlled trials and guidelines for clinical practice. Eur Psychiatry. 2011;26:144-158.

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79.  Correll CU, Kane JM. One-year incidence rates of tardive dyskinesia in children and adolescents treated with second-generation antipsychotics: a systematic review. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2007;17:647-656.

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80.  Pringsheim T, Marras C. Pimozide for tics in Tourette's syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;(2):CD006996.

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81.  Bruggeman R, van der Linden C, Buitelaar JK, et al. Risperidone versus pimozide in Tourette's disorder: a comparative double-blind parallel-group study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2001;62:50-56.

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82.  Cheng W, Lin L, Guo S. A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of risperidone versus traditional agents for Tourette's syndrome [in Chinese]. Zhong Nan Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban. 2012;37:359-365.

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83.  Sallee FR, Kurlan R, Goetz CG, et al. Ziprasidone treatment of children and adolescents with Tourette's syndrome: a pilot study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39:292-299.

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84.  Liu Y, Ni H, Wang C, et al. Effectiveness and tolerability of aripiprazole in children and adolescents with Tourette's disorder: a meta-analysis. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2016;26:436-441.

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85.  Yang CS, Huang H, Zhang LL, et al. Aripiprazole for the treatment of tic disorders in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry. 2015;15:179.

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86.  de Jonge JL, Cath DC, van Balkom AJ. Quetiapine in patients with Tourette's disorder: an open-label, flexible-dose study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007;68:1148-1150.

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87.  Jankovic J. Botulinum toxin in movement disorders. Curr Opin Neurol. 1994;7:358-366.

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88.  Kwak CH, Hanna PA, Jankovic J. Botulinum toxin in the treatment of tics. Arch Neurol. 2000;57:1190-1193.

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89.  Yang CS, Zhang LL, Zeng LN, et al. Topiramate for Tourette's syndrome in children: a meta-analysis. Pediatr Neurol. 2013;49:344-350.

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90.  Jankovic J, Jimenez-Shahed J, Brown LW. A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of topiramate in the treatment of Tourette syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2010;81:70-73.

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91.  Yang CS, Zhang LL, Lin YZ, et al. Sodium valproate for the treatment of Tourette׳s syndrome in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychiatry Res. 2015;226:411-417.

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92.  Jankovic J, Beach J. Long-term effects of tetrabenazine in hyperkinetic movement disorders. Neurology. 1997;48:358-362.

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93.  Kenney C, Hunter C, Jankovic J. Long-term tolerability of tetrabenazine in the treatment of hyperkinetic movement disorders. Mov Disord. 2007;22:193-197.

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94.  Gilbert DL, Sethuraman G, Sine L, et al. Tourette's syndrome improvement with pergolide in a randomized, double-blind, crossover trial. Neurology. 2000;54:1310-1315.

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95.  Anca MH, Giladi N, Korczyn AD. Ropinirole in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Neurology. 2004;62:1626-1627.

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96.  Kurlan R, Crespi G, Coffey B, et al. A multicenter randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial of pramipexole for Tourette's syndrome. Mov Disord. 2012;27:775-778.

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97.  Cianchetti C, Fratta A, Pisano T, et al. Pergolide improvement in neuroleptic-resistant Tourette cases: various mechanisms causing tics. Neurol Sci. 2005;26:137-139.

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98.  Whiting PF, Wolff RF, Deshpande S, et al. Cannabinoids for medical use: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2015;313:2456-2473.

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99.  Kim YH, Son CG, Ku BC, et al. Herbal medicines for treating tic disorders: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Chin Med. 2014;9:6.

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100.  Gabbay V, Babb JS, Klein RG, et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of omega-3 fatty acids in Tourette's disorder. Pediatrics. 2012;129:e1493-e1500.

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101.  Bloch MH, Panza KE, Yaffa A, et al. N-acetylcysteine in the treatment of pediatric Tourette syndrome: randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled add-on trial. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2016;26:327-334.

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102.  Bloch MH, Panza KE, Landeros-Weisenberger A, et al. Meta-analysis: treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children with comorbid tic disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009;48:884-893.

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103.  Cohen SC, Mulqueen JM, Ferracioli-Oda E, et al. Meta-analysis: risk of tics associated with psychostimulant use in randomized, placebo-controlled trials. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2015;54:728-736.

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104.  Tourette's Syndrome Study Group. Treatment of ADHD in children with tics: a randomized controlled trial. Neurology. 2002;58:527-536.

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105.  Rizzo R, Gulisano M, Calì PV, et al. Tourette syndrome and comorbid ADHD: current pharmacological treatment options. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2013;17:421-428.

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106.  Allen AJ, Kurlan RM, Gilbert DL, et al. Atomoxetine treatment in children and adolescents with ADHD and comorbid tic disorders. Neurology. 2005;65:1941-1949.

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107.  Scahill L, Riddle MA, King RA, et al. Fluoxetine has no marked effect on tic symptoms in patients with Tourette's syndrome: a double-blind placebo-controlled study. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 1997;7:75-85.

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108.  Milanfranchi A, Ravagli S, Lensi P, et al. A double-blind study of fluvoxamine and clomipramine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 1997;12:131-136.

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109.  Robertson MM, Eapen V. Pharmacologic controversy of CNS stimulants in Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Clin Neuropharmacol. 1992;15:408-425.

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110.  Kwon HJ, Lim WS, Lim MH, et al. 1-Hz low frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in children with Tourette's syndrome. Neurosci Lett. 2011;492:1-4.

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111.  Le K, Liu L, Sun M, et al. Transcranial magnetic stimulation at 1 Hertz improves clinical symptoms in children with Tourette syndrome for at least 6 months. J Clin Neurosci. 2013;20:257-262.

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112.  Mantovani A, Leckman JF, Grantz H, et al. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of the supplementary motor area in the treatment of Tourette syndrome: report of two cases. Clin Neurophysiol. 2007;118:2314-2315.

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113.  Mantovani A, Lisanby SH, Pieraccini F, et al. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and Tourette's syndrome (TS). Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2006;9:95-100.

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114.  Landeros-Weisenberger A, Mantovani A, Motlagh MG, et al. Randomized sham controlled double-blind trial of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for adults with severe Tourette syndrome. Brain Stimul. 2015;8:574-581.

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115.  Höflich A, Savli M, Comasco E, et al. Neuropsychiatric deep brain stimulation for translational neuroimaging. Neuroimage. 2013;79:30-41.

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116.  Mink JW, Walkup J, Frey KA, et al. Patient selection and assessment recommendations for deep brain stimulation in Tourette syndrome. Mov Disord. 2006;21:1831-1838.

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117.  Müller-Vahl KR, Cath DC, Cavanna AE, et al; European Society for the Study of Tourette Syndrome (ESSTS) Guidelines Group. European clinical guidelines for Tourette syndrome and other tic disorders. Part IV: deep brain stimulation. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2011;20:209-217.

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118.  Nangunoori R, Tomycz ND, Quigley M, et al. Deep brain stimulation for psychiatric diseases: a pooled analysis of published studies employing disease-specific standardized outcome scales. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2013;91:345-354.

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119.  Tye SJ, Frye MA, Lee KH. Disrupting disordered neurocircuitry: treating refractory psychiatric illness with neuromodulation. Mayo Clin Proc. 2009;84:522-532.

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120.  Kuhn J, Gründler TO, Lenartz D, et al. Deep brain stimulation for psychiatric disorders. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2010;107:105-113.

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121.  Goetz CG, Tanner CM, Stebbins GT, et al. Adult tics in Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome: description and risk factors. Neurology. 1992;42:784-788.

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