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Qaseem A, Humphrey LL, Forciea MA, et al; Clinical Guidelines Committee of the American College of Physicians. Treatment of pressure ulcers: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. 2015;162:370-379.

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1.  European Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel; National Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel. Prevention and treatment of pressure ulcers. Washington DC: National Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel; 2014. http://www.npuap.org/ (last accessed 31 March 2017).

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3.  Margolis DJ, Bilker W, Knauss J, et al. The incidence and prevalence of pressure ulcers among elderly patients in general medical practice. Ann Epidemiol. 2002;12:321-325.

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4.  Pieper, M, ed. Pressure ulcers: prevalence, incidence, and implications for the future. Washington, DC: National Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel; 2013.

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18.  Boyle M, Green M. Pressure sores in intensive care: defining their incidence and associated factors and assessing the utility of two pressure sore risk assessment tools. Aust Crit Care. 2001;14:24-30.

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20.  Berlowitz DR, Brandeis GH, Morris JN, et al. Deriving a risk-adjustment model for pressure ulcer development using the Minimum Data Set. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2001;49:866-871.

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23.  Padula WV, Mishra MK, Makic MB, et al. Improving the quality of pressure ulcer care with prevention: a cost-effectiveness analysis. Med Care. 2011;49:385-392.

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24.  Chou R, Dana T, Bougatsos C, et al. Pressure ulcer risk assessment and prevention: a systematic comparative effectiveness review. Ann Intern Med. 2013;159:28-38.

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25.  Gould L, Stuntz M, Giovannelli M, et al.Wound Healing Society 2015 update on guidelines for pressure ulcers. Wound Repair Regen. 2016;24:145-162.

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26.  Anthony D, Parboteeah S, Saleh M, et al. Norton, Waterlow and Braden scores: a review of the literature and a comparison between the scores and clinical judgement. J Clin Nurs. 2008;17:646-653.

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27.  Reddy M, Gill SS, Rochon PA. Preventing pressure ulcers: a systematic review. JAMA. 2006;296:974-984.

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28.  Moore ZE, Cowman S. Risk assessment tools for the prevention of pressure ulcers. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;(2):CD006471.

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29.  Norton D, McLaren R, Exton-Smith AN. Pressure sores: an investigation of geriatric nursing problems in hospital. New York, NY: Churchill Livingstone; 1975.

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31.  Braden B, Bergstrom N. A conceptual schema for the study of the etiology of pressure sores. Rehabil Nurs. 1987;12:8-12.

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32.  Xie H, Peel NM, Hirdes JP, et al. Validation of the interRAI Pressure Ulcer Risk Scale in acute care hospitals. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2016;64:1324-1328.

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33.  Webster J, Coleman K, Mudge A, et al. Pressure ulcers: effectiveness of risk-assessment tools. A randomised controlled trial (the ULCER trial). BMJ Qual Saf. 2011;20:297-306.

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34.  Schoonhoven L, Haalboom JR, Bousema MT, et al. Prospective cohort study of routine use of risk assessment scales for prediction of pressure ulcers. BMJ. 2002;325:797.

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35.  Pancorbo-Hidalgo PL, Garcia-Fernandez FP, Lopez-Medina IM, et al. Risk assessment scales for pressure ulcer prevention: a systematic review. J Adv Nurs. 2006;54:94-110.

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36.  Moore Z, Cowman S, Conroy RM. A randomised controlled clinical trial of repositioning, using the 30° tilt, for the prevention of pressure ulcers. J Clin Nurs. 2011;20:2633-2644.

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37.  Bergstrom N, Horn SD, Rapp MP, et al. Turning for Ulcer ReductioN: a multisite randomized clinical trial in nursing homes. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2013;61:1705-1713.

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38.  Yap TL, Kennerly SM, Simmons MR, et al. Multidimensional team-based intervention using musical cues to reduce odds of facility-acquired pressure ulcers in long-term care: a paired randomized intervention study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2013;61:1552-1559.

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39.  McInnes E, Jammali-Blasi A, Bell-Syer SE, et al. Support surfaces for pressure ulcer prevention. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(9):CD001735.

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40.  Nixon J, Cranny G, Iglesias C, et al. Randomised, controlled trial of alternating pressure mattresses compared with alternating pressure overlays for the prevention of pressure ulcers: PRESSURE (pressure relieving support surfaces) trial. BMJ. 2006;332:1413.

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41.  Brienza D, Kelsey S, Karg P, et al. A randomized clinical trial on preventing pressure ulcers with wheelchair seat cushions. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2010;58:2308-2314.

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42.  Donnelly J, Winder J, Kernohan WG, et al. An RCT to determine the effect of a heel elevation device in pressure ulcer prevention post-hip fracture. J Wound Care. 2011;20:309-312,314-318.

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43.  Walia GS, Wong AL, Lo AY, et al. Efficacy of monitoring devices in support of prevention of pressure injuries: systematic review and meta-analysis. Adv Skin Wound Care. 2016;29:567-574.

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44.  Langer G, Fink A. Nutritional interventions for preventing and treating pressure ulcers. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;(6):CD003216.

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45.  Sullivan N, Schoelles KM. Preventing in-facility pressure ulcers as a patient safety strategy: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 2013;158:410-416.

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46.  Edwards L, Banks V. Pressure sore classification grading systems. J Community Nurs. 1999;13:28-35.

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48.  National Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel. NPUAP pressure injury stages. April 2016. http://www.npuap.org/ (last accessed 30 March 2017).

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49.  Grayson ML, Gibbons GW, Balogh K, et al. Probing to bone in infected pedal ulcers. A clinical sign of underlying osteomyelitis in diabetic patients. JAMA. 1995;273:721-723.

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50.  Dow G. Bacterial swabs and the chronic wound: when, how, and what do they mean? Ostomy Wound Manage. 2003;49:8-13.

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51.  Reddy M, Gill SS, Kalkar SR, et al. Treatment of pressure ulcers: a systematic review. JAMA. 2008;300:2647-2662.

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52.  Smith ME, Totten A, Hickam DH, et al. Pressure ulcer treatment strategies: a systematic comparative effectiveness review. Ann Intern Med. 2013;159:39-50.

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53.  Vanderwee K, Grypdonck MH, De Bacquer D, et al. Effectiveness of turning with unequal time intervals on the incidence of pressure ulcer lesions. J Adv Nurs. 2007;57:59-68.

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54.  Moore ZE, Cowman S. Repositioning for treating pressure ulcers. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(1):CD006898.

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55.  Qaseem A, Humphrey LL, Forciea MA, et al; Clinical Guidelines Committee of the American College of Physicians. Treatment of pressure ulcers: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. 2015;162:370-379.

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56.  Cereda E, Klersy C, Serioli M, et al; OligoElement Sore Trial Study Group. A nutritional formula enriched with arginine, zinc, and antioxidants for the healing of pressure ulcers: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2015;162:167-174.

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57.  Bauman WA, Spungen AM, Collins JF, et al. The effect of oxandrolone on the healing of chronic pressure ulcers in persons with spinal cord injury: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2013;158:718-726.

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58.  Pieper B, Langemo D, Cuddigan J. Pressure ulcer pain: a systematic literature review and national pressure ulcer advisory panel white paper. Ostomy Wound Manage. 2009;55:16-31.

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59.  Arapaglou V, Katsenis K, Syrigos KN, et al. Analgesic efficacy of an ibuprofen-releasing foam dressing compared with local best practices for painful exuding wounds. J Wound Care. 2011;20:319-325.

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60.  Zeppetella G, Paul J, Ribeiro MD. Analgesic efficacy of morphine applied topically to painful ulcers. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2003;25:555-558.

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61.  Sibbald RG, Orsted HL, Coutts PM, et al. Best practice recommendations for preparing the wound bed: update 2006. Adv Skin Wound Care. 2007;20:390-405.

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62.  Leaper D. Sharp technique for wound debridement. December 2002. http://www.worldwidewounds.com/ (last accessed 31 March 2017).

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64.  Sherman RA, Wyle F, Vulpe M. Maggot therapy for treating pressure ulcers in spinal cord injury patients. J Spinal Cord Med. 1995;18:71-74.

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65.  Gray M. Is larval (maggot) debridement effective for removal of necrotic tissue from chronic wounds? J Wound Ostomy Continence Nurs. 2008;35:378-384.

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66.  Gurunluoglu R. Experiences with waterjet hydrosurgery system in wound debridement. World J Emerg Surg. 2007;2:10.

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67.  Bradley M, Cullum N, Sheldon T. The debridement of chronic wounds: a systematic review. Health Technol Assess. 1999;3:iii-iv,1-78.

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68.  Jull AB, Cullum N, Dumville JC, et al. Honey as a topical treatment for wounds. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(3):CD005083.

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69.  Moore ZE, Cowman S. Wound cleansing for pressure ulcers. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(3):CD004983.

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70.  Bradley M, Cullum N, Nelson EA, et al. Systematic reviews of wound care management: (2). Dressings and topical agents used in the healing of chronic wounds. Health Technol Assess. 1999;3:1-35.

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71.  Bouza C, Saz Z, Munoz A, et al. Efficacy of advanced dressings in the treatment of pressure ulcers: a systematic review. J Wound Care. 2005;14:193-199.

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73.  Norman G, Dumville JC, Moore ZE, et al. Antibiotics and antiseptics for pressure ulcers. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;(4):CD011586.

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74.  Ebright JR. Microbiology of chronic leg and pressure ulcers: clinical significance and implications for treatment. Nurs Clin North Am. 2005;40:207-216.

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76.  Gregor S, Maegele M, Sauerland S, et al. Negative pressure wound therapy: a vacuum of evidence? Arch Surg. 2008;143:189-196.

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77.  Ubbink DT, Westerbos SJ, Nelson EA, et al. A systematic review of topical negative pressure therapy for acute and chronic wounds. Br J Surg. 2008;95:685-692.

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80.  Dumville JC, Webster J, Evans D, et al. Negative pressure wound therapy for treating pressure ulcers. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(5):CD011334.

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81.  Kranke P, Bennett M, Martyn-St James M, et al. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy for chronic wounds. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(6):CD004123.

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82.  Roeckl-Wiedmann I, Bennett M, Kranke P. Systematic review of hyperbaric oxygen in the management of chronic wounds. Br J Surg. 2005;92:24-32.

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83.  Cullum N, Nelson EA, Flemming K, et al. Systematic reviews of wound care management: (5) beds; (6) compression; (7) laser therapy, therapeutic ultrasound, electrotherapy and electromagnetic therapy. Health Technol Assess. 2001;5:1-221.

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84.  Aziz Z, Bell-Syer SE. Electromagnetic therapy for treating pressure ulcers. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(9):CD002930.

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85.  National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Pressure ulcers: prevention and management of pressure ulcers. April 2014. http://www.nice.org.uk/ (last accessed 31 March 2017).

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91.  Hao XY, Li HL, Su H, et al. Topical phenytoin for treating pressure ulcers. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;(2):CD008251.

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