白人种族、女性、早产、低出生体重、多胎妊娠以及母体高龄是血管瘤形成的强危险因素。
病史和体格检查
婴幼儿血管瘤可在出生时即出现,但他们通常在生命最初的几周典型地表现为扁平的粉红色或蓝色斑疹或斑片。[2]Garzon MC. Infantile hemangioma. In: Callen JP, Horn TD, Mancini AJ, et al, eds. Dermatology. Vol. 2. 2nd ed. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier; 2008:1565-80.[16]Bruckner AL, Friedan IJ. Hemangiomas of infancy. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2003 Apr;48(4):477-93.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12664009?tool=bestpractice.com 或者,可能表现为红色或蓝色丘疹或结节。它们经历了一段加速生长期,称为“增殖期”,有助于将它们与其他血管实体区分开来。增殖期的持续时间因婴幼儿血管瘤形态而异,但在3月龄时通常达到 80% 的生长。[14]Darrow DH, Greene AK, Mancini AJ, et al. Diagnosis and management of infantile hemangioma. Pediatrics. 2015 Oct;136(4):e1060-104.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/136/4/e1060http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26416931?tool=bestpractice.com 浅表型血管瘤呈鲜红色:表面紧张。可能发生溃疡和出血,特别是在经受显著摩擦、浸渍和创伤的区域(例如,尿布区域、颈部、腋窝和头皮)。大多数病变在婴儿 6 至12 月龄时达到稳定期,然后进入自发消退期。消退可能需要几年的时间,在这期间红色变为蓝色和粉红色。正常肤色皮岛变得明显,血管瘤触之更加柔软。[2]Garzon MC. Infantile hemangioma. In: Callen JP, Horn TD, Mancini AJ, et al, eds. Dermatology. Vol. 2. 2nd ed. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier; 2008:1565-80.[6]Haggstrom AN, Lammer EJ, Schneider RA, et al. Patterns of infantile hemangiomas: new clues to hemangioma pathogenesis and embryonic facial development. Pediatrics. 2006 Mar;117(3):698-703.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16510649?tool=bestpractice.com[23]Haggstrom AN, Drolet BA, Baselga E, et al. Prospective study of infantile hemangiomas: clinical characteristics predicting complications and treatment. Pediatrics. 2006 Sep;118(3):882-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16950977?tool=bestpractice.com
深部血管瘤张力较明显,并且可能因哭泣及受累部位出现膨大。它们在婴儿出生时不会呈现特征性的红色或粉红色,但是可能在出生后最初 1 年内予以呈现。它们的生长期可能不那么明显,并且可能比浅表性婴幼儿血管瘤更晚发生,从而增加了与血管畸形混淆的可能性。面部中线病变(特别是在鼻子部位的病变)需要与皮样囊肿、神经胶质瘤和脑膨出相鉴别。腰骶段脊柱部血管瘤可能与脑脊膜膨出和脊髓脊膜膨出类似。[10]Grevelink SV, Mulliken JB. Vascular anomalies and tumors of skin and subcutaneous tissues. In: Freedberg IM, Eisen AZ, Wolff K, et al, eds. Fitzpatrick's dermatology in general medicine. Vol. 1. 6th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2003:1002-26.
影像学检查
影像检查通常是不必要的,但在诊断不确定的情况下,也许可从血管或淋巴畸形中鉴别婴幼儿血管瘤。对病变处进行多普勒超声检查快速、准确且具有成本效益。超声检查可避免麻醉风险。然而,检查结果的解读高度依赖技术人员的专业知识;它可能无法明确鉴别增生性血管肿瘤(例如,婴幼儿血管瘤)与血管畸形。
如果依据临床检查和超声不能确诊,或者需要更充分地显示病变的范围和与邻近结构的关系,则需要进行磁共振成像 (MRI)。[24]Paltiel HJ, Burrows PE, Kozakewich HP, et al. Soft-tissue vascular anomalies: utility of US for diagnosis. Radiology. 2000 Mar;214(3):747-54.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10715041?tool=bestpractice.com
增强 MRI 检查可以鉴别婴幼儿血管瘤和静脉、动脉、淋巴管畸形。[25]Kern S, Niemeyer C, Darge K, et al. Differentiation of vascular birthmarks by MR imaging. An investigation of hemangiomas, venous and lymphatic malformations. Acta Radiol. 2000 Sep;41(5):453-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11016765?tool=bestpractice.com MRI 也可用于区分婴幼儿血管瘤、脑膨出或脑膜膨出/脊髓脊膜膨出。[10]Grevelink SV, Mulliken JB. Vascular anomalies and tumors of skin and subcutaneous tissues. In: Freedberg IM, Eisen AZ, Wolff K, et al, eds. Fitzpatrick's dermatology in general medicine. Vol. 1. 6th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2003:1002-26. 在区分婴幼儿血管瘤和恶性软组织肿块(包括纤维肉瘤上),MRI 是一项有用的辅助检查。 据报道,诊断特异性高达 90%,对恶性肿瘤的阴性预测值为 94%。[26]Kitami M. Diffusion-weighted imaging as a routine MRI protocol for the evaluation of 'infantile hemangioma'. Clin Imaging. 2017 Nov - Dec;46:121.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28780146?tool=bestpractice.com 相比之下,该检查对识别良性血管肿瘤的特异性为 50%,对识别恶性血管肿瘤的特异性为 80%。当不能排除恶性肿瘤时,需要进行组织活检。[1]Krowchuk DP, Frieden IJ, Mancini AJ, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the management of infantile hemangiomas. Pediatrics. 2019 Jan;143(1): e20183475.https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/143/1/e20183475.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30584062?tool=bestpractice.com
计算机体层成像 (CT) 不像 MRI 那么有帮助,因为 CT 扫描不能确定血流模式。[10]Grevelink SV, Mulliken JB. Vascular anomalies and tumors of skin and subcutaneous tissues. In: Freedberg IM, Eisen AZ, Wolff K, et al, eds. Fitzpatrick's dermatology in general medicine. Vol. 1. 6th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2003:1002-26. 在现代临床实践中,动脉造影已在很大程度上被无创成像技术所取代。[10]Grevelink SV, Mulliken JB. Vascular anomalies and tumors of skin and subcutaneous tissues. In: Freedberg IM, Eisen AZ, Wolff K, et al, eds. Fitzpatrick's dermatology in general medicine. Vol. 1. 6th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2003:1002-26.
在考虑综合征性婴幼儿血管瘤时,MRI 也是评估脊柱、大脑等相关异常的关键检查。[14]Darrow DH, Greene AK, Mancini AJ, et al. Diagnosis and management of infantile hemangioma. Pediatrics. 2015 Oct;136(4):e1060-104.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/136/4/e1060http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26416931?tool=bestpractice.com
组织活检
组织病理学发现有很大差异,取决于婴幼儿血管瘤的发生阶段。增殖性血管瘤有小叶结构,且含有大量细胞。它们可侵及真皮,并可能延伸至皮下组织。纤细的血管腔呈裂隙样,周围环绕着肿胀的内皮细胞。正常的有丝分裂常见。血管瘤的周围基质内聚集大量肥大细胞。[14]Darrow DH, Greene AK, Mancini AJ, et al. Diagnosis and management of infantile hemangioma. Pediatrics. 2015 Oct;136(4):e1060-104.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/136/4/e1060http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26416931?tool=bestpractice.com[27]Weedon D. Vascular tumors. In: Houston MJ, ed. Skin pathology. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Churchill Livingston; 2002:1001-43. 随着血管瘤的退化,管腔扩大且内皮细胞变平。血管被纤维脂肪组织替代。[27]Weedon D. Vascular tumors. In: Houston MJ, ed. Skin pathology. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Churchill Livingston; 2002:1001-43. 血管瘤有特有的 GLUT1 染色,GLUT1 是一种存在于婴幼儿血管瘤、脑和胎盘中的红细胞型葡萄糖转运蛋白。[28]North PE, Waner M, Mizeracki A, et al. GLUT1: a newly discovered immunohistochemical marker for juvenile hemangioma. Hum Pathol. 2000 Jan;31(1):11-22.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10665907?tool=bestpractice.com[29]Bree AF, Siegfried E, Sotelo-Avila C, et al. Infantile hemangioma: speculation on placental trophoblastic origin. Arch Dermatol. 2001 May;137(5):573-7.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamadermatology/fullarticle/478335http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11346335?tool=bestpractice.com[30]North PE, Waner M, James CA, et al. Congenital nonprogressive hemangioma: a distinct clinicopathological entity unlike infantile hemangioma. Arch Dermatol. 2001 Dec;137(12):1607-20.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamadermatology/fullarticle/478613http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11735711?tool=bestpractice.com 如果认为可能存在有明显血管成分的恶性肿瘤,需进行活检组织病理学检查和特殊组织染色(包括 GLUT1)。[27]Weedon D. Vascular tumors. In: Houston MJ, ed. Skin pathology. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Churchill Livingston; 2002:1001-43.
变异型和特殊注意事项
节段性血管瘤可能与潜在的异常有关。节段性颈面部、上胸部、肩部或手臂血管瘤可能与脑、脑血管系、眼、胸骨和/或主动脉的结构异常有关。这种神经皮肤疾病被称为 PHACE(S) 综合征,是后颅窝畸形、血管瘤、血管病变、心脏异常/主动脉缩窄、眼异常和胸骨裂隙或脐上囊肿的英文首字母缩写。[8]Metry D, Heyer G, Hess C, et al. Consensus statement on diagnostic criteria for PHACE syndrome. Pediatrics. 2009 Nov;124(5):1447-56.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19858157?tool=bestpractice.com 这一综合征往往是不全型。[31]Metry DW, Dowd CF, Barkovich AJ, et al. The many faces of PHACE syndrome. J Pediatr. 2001 Jul;139(1):117-23. [Erratum in: J Pediatr 2001 Sep;139(3):470.]http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11445804?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 左下唇柔软的溃疡性血管瘤由Carla T. Lane,MD,PhD提供;获准使用 [Citation ends]. 患有节段型面颈部血管瘤的婴幼儿需要接受眼科检查、超声心动图检查,还可能需要接受中枢神经系统影像学检查。
胡须血管瘤:位于脸下部和颈部的血管瘤,与喉血管瘤有关。[1]Krowchuk DP, Frieden IJ, Mancini AJ, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the management of infantile hemangiomas. Pediatrics. 2019 Jan;143(1): e20183475.https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/143/1/e20183475.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30584062?tool=bestpractice.com 进行性喘鸣是一种令人担忧的体征。对于胡须分布区域有血管瘤的婴儿,应转诊给耳鼻喉科医生,以进行进一步的评估和可能的内镜检查。[1]Krowchuk DP, Frieden IJ, Mancini AJ, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the management of infantile hemangiomas. Pediatrics. 2019 Jan;143(1): e20183475.https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/143/1/e20183475.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30584062?tool=bestpractice.com
腰骶部血管瘤:血管瘤位于腰骶部,可能是椎管闭合不全的象征。其他相关畸形,包括脊髓栓系、肾脏和骨骼异常。磁共振成像 (MRI) 是首选检查。[9]Goldberg NS, Hebert AA, Esterly NB. Sacral hemangioma and multiple congenital abnormalities. Arch Dermatol. 1986 Jun;122(6):684-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3717979?tool=bestpractice.com[10]Grevelink SV, Mulliken JB. Vascular anomalies and tumors of skin and subcutaneous tissues. In: Freedberg IM, Eisen AZ, Wolff K, et al, eds. Fitzpatrick's dermatology in general medicine. Vol. 1. 6th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2003:1002-26. 节段性会阴部、生殖器、臀部或大腿血管瘤应引起对LUMBAR综合征的考虑,LUMBAR综合征是指婴幼儿下半躯体血管瘤和其他皮肤缺损、泌尿生殖器异常和溃疡、脊髓病、骨畸形、肛门直肠畸形和动脉异常,以及肾脏异常。[1]Krowchuk DP, Frieden IJ, Mancini AJ, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the management of infantile hemangiomas. Pediatrics. 2019 Jan;143(1): e20183475.https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/143/1/e20183475.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30584062?tool=bestpractice.com
多灶性皮下婴幼儿血管瘤;患有多发性皮下血管瘤的婴幼儿内脏器官可能存在血管瘤。一项前瞻性研究显示,在血管瘤个数 ≥ 5的血管瘤婴幼儿中,16%合并肝血管瘤。[12]Horii KA, Drolet BA, Frieden IJ, et al. Prospective study of the frequency of hepatic hemangiomas in infants with multiple cutaneous infantile hemangiomas. Pediatr Dermatol. 2011 May-Jun;28(3):245-53.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21517952?tool=bestpractice.com 建议对这部分患儿进行全面体检。肝大可能提示为临床严重肝血管瘤,应通过超声评估。心脏检查异常可能提示高输出量性心力衰竭。患有多灶性皮肤婴幼儿血管瘤或主要内脏病变的患者也存在甲状腺功能减退的风险。[14]Darrow DH, Greene AK, Mancini AJ, et al. Diagnosis and management of infantile hemangioma. Pediatrics. 2015 Oct;136(4):e1060-104.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/136/4/e1060http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26416931?tool=bestpractice.com
在某些位置的血管瘤可会引起显著的外观或功能并发症。眶周血管瘤可能会导致眼部并发症。鼻尖或耳部的血管瘤可能会导致软骨破坏。面部和耳部病变可能会导致永久性外观缺陷。头皮大面积病变可能导致脱发。唇部血管瘤会引起喂养问题,并扭曲口唇部正常轮廓。[13]Paller A, Mancini A. Hurwitz clinical pediatric dermatology. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 2011:268-302. 生殖器和会阴血管瘤更容易发生溃疡,导致相关的并发症。
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 斑块型颈面部溃疡性血管瘤(胡须部位分布)由Carla T. Lane,MD,PhD提供;获准使用 [Citation ends]. 女性乳腺血管瘤可能会导致乳房发育或乳头轮廓的永久性改变。