治疗计划由几个因素决定,包括自杀风险程度、是否存在相关精神疾病,以及可获得的社会支持水平。
第一步
一旦确定存在自杀风险,需立即采取行动,包括除去自杀工具,确保患者和他人的安全,以及治疗任何现有的精神障碍。[110]Hirschfeld RM, Russell JM. Assessment and treatment of suicidal patients. N Engl J Med. 1997 Sep 25;337(13):910-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9302306?tool=bestpractice.com[111]Mann JJ. A current perspective of suicide and attempted suicide. Ann Intern Med. 2002 Feb 19;136(4):302-11.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11848728?tool=bestpractice.com
自杀意图程度较高、有具体计划或选择高致命工具的患者应归为具有较高风险。通常适合住院或在安全场所接受观察,但可能不会减少后续的自伤企图。再次故意自我伤害:有低质量的证据表明,在降低 16 周时再次故意自我伤害的患者比例方面,住院大约 17 小时似乎并不比立刻出院更有效。低质量的观察性(队列)研究或者受试者<200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。 存在精神病和/或缺乏足够社会支持的患者也应入院接受持续监测。[112]American Psychiatric Association. Practice guideline for the assessment and treatment of patients with suicidal behaviors. November 2003 [internet publication].http://www.cercle-d-excellence-psy.org/fileadmin/cep_files/Guidlines_APA_Suicide.pdf 若患者拒绝住院,可按照当地的法律规章程序使其非自愿住院。医生要熟悉当地有关非自愿住院的法律问题。
一项研究表明,住院患者在入院早期的自杀死亡风险最高,其中精神分裂症患者的风险下降最慢。[113]Bowers L, Banda T, Nijman H. Suicide inside: a systematic review of inpatient suicides. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2010 May;198(5):315-28.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20458192?tool=bestpractice.com 住院患者自杀与入院天数、既往自杀行为、缺乏支持、缺乏监管、绝望、自杀家族史及家庭矛盾相关。[91]Large M, Smith G, Sharma S, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of the clinical factors associated with the suicide of psychiatric in-patients. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2011 Jul;124(1):18-29.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21261599?tool=bestpractice.com[113]Bowers L, Banda T, Nijman H. Suicide inside: a systematic review of inpatient suicides. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2010 May;198(5):315-28.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20458192?tool=bestpractice.com 虽然随机对照试验是常用科研手段,但尚无相关研究支持对精神科住院患者进行正式观察,以预防自杀和自我伤害。[114]Manna M. Effectiveness of formal observation in inpatient psychiatry in preventing adverse outcomes: the state of the science. J Psychiatr Ment Health Nurs. 2010 Apr;17(3):268-73.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20465777?tool=bestpractice.com 现有的定性研究发现未能证明正式观察与预防患者不良结局之间的相关性。
门诊治疗可能更适合有慢性自杀意念但无显著自杀企图既往史的患者。为了使门诊治疗取得成功,需具备强大的支持网络和方便获取的门诊服务。[112]American Psychiatric Association. Practice guideline for the assessment and treatment of patients with suicidal behaviors. November 2003 [internet publication].http://www.cercle-d-excellence-psy.org/fileadmin/cep_files/Guidlines_APA_Suicide.pdf症状改善:有中等质量的证据表明,对于有高水平自杀意念的患者,与出院时夜间护理相比,日间医院治疗可使症状减少更多。[115]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Self-harm in over 8s: short-term management and prevention of recurrence. July 2004 [internet publication].http://guidance.nice.org.uk/CG16受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。
与当前自杀企图相关的任何身体伤害均应得到合适治疗。
心理治疗和社会心理干预
心理治疗是多数自杀意图高风险患者恢复过程的重要组成部分。然而,关于自杀干预的有效性研究需要很大的样本量和非常长期的随访。一项研究已发现,没有某种特定干预措施已被证明可减少自杀。[116]Gunnell D, Frankel S. Prevention of suicide: aspirations and evidence. BMJ. 1994 May 7;308(6938):1227-33.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2540097/pdf/bmj00439-0057.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8080520?tool=bestpractice.com 因此,大多数自杀干预性治疗被评估的是预防自杀企图的有效性。[117]Hepp U, Wittmann L, Schnyder U, et al. Psychological and psychosocial interventions after attempted suicide: an overview of treatment studies. Crisis. 2004;25(3):108-17.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15387237?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,这只是自杀的替代指标。大多数企图自杀的人未死于自杀,而有些可能在第一次尝试时成功自杀。
在随机对照试验 (RCT) 中,对曾尝试自杀的患者进行认知行为治疗 (CBT) 可有效减少反复自杀企图。[117]Hepp U, Wittmann L, Schnyder U, et al. Psychological and psychosocial interventions after attempted suicide: an overview of treatment studies. Crisis. 2004;25(3):108-17.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15387237?tool=bestpractice.com[118]van der Sande R, Buskens E, Allart E, et al. Psychosocial intervention following suicide attempt: a systematic review of treatment interventions. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1997 Jul;96(1):43-50.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9259223?tool=bestpractice.com再次蓄意自伤:有中等质量的证据表明,对于有近期自伤史的患者,与单用常规治疗相比,认知疗法加常规护理(社区临床医生提供的护理,研究病例管理者提供追踪和转诊服务)似乎可更有效地降低 6-18 个月期间的蓄意自伤发生率,并减少自伤企图。受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。自杀行为减少:来自系统评价和 meta 分析的中等质量证据表明,认知行为疗法 (cognitive behavioural therapy, CBT) 在减少自杀行为方面效果显著。[119]Tarrier N, Taylor K, Gooding P. Cognitive-behavioral interventions to reduce suicide behavior: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Behav Modif. 2008 Jan;32(1):77-108.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18096973?tool=bestpractice.com 此外,有证据表明,CBT 似乎对成年人有效,但对青少年并不同样有效;对个别患者有效但对成组患者无效;当直接关注降低某些方面的自杀行为时有效,但集中于其他症状(例如抑郁或痛苦)时无效。[119]Tarrier N, Taylor K, Gooding P. Cognitive-behavioral interventions to reduce suicide behavior: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Behav Modif. 2008 Jan;32(1):77-108.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18096973?tool=bestpractice.com受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。 特别令人关注的是辩证行为治疗 (dialectical behavioural therapy, DBT),这是一种强化的长期干预,以联合行为、认知和支持治疗为特征,用于治疗边缘性人格障碍患者。DBT 已被广泛报道,且已证明可减少近期有自杀自伤行为和边缘性人格障碍患者的自杀企图。[120]Linehan MM, Comtois KA, Murray AM, et al. Two-year randomized controlled trial and follow-up of dialectical behavior therapy vs therapy by experts for suicidal behaviors and borderline personality disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006 Jul;63(7):757-66.http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/63/7/757http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16818865?tool=bestpractice.com DBT 在用于有边缘性人格特征的自杀青少年方面也有良好的前景。[121]Rathus JH, Miller AL. Dialectical behavior therapy adapted for suicidal adolescents. Suicide Life Threat Behav. 2002 Summer;32(2):146-57.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12079031?tool=bestpractice.com 目前还不清楚对于其他精神障碍(例如抑郁、双相情感障碍、药物滥用和精神分裂症)患者,DBT 是否有减少自杀的效果。DBT 仅用于有潜在人格障碍或此特征的患者,而 CBT 治疗的候选者包括对 CBT 有反应的精神障碍(例如抑郁)患者。虽然普遍认为心理治疗(包括 CBT)对预防抑郁患者自杀有效,[122]Robinson J, Hetrick SE, Martin C, et al. Preventing suicide in young people: systematic review. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2011 Jan;45(1):3-26.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21174502?tool=bestpractice.com 但没有确定性结论。一项关于心理治疗对成人抑郁患者自杀意念和自杀风险影响的 meta 分析发现,尽管其对绝望有显著效果,但证据尚不足以支持采用心理治疗是充分的。[123]Cuijpers P, de Beurs DP, van Spijker BA, et al. The effects of psychotherapy for adult depression on suicidality and hopelessness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Affect Disord. 2013 Jan 25;144(3):183-90.http://www.jad-journal.com/article/S0165-0327(12)00474-0/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22832172?tool=bestpractice.com 一项小样本研究显示,在一处美国军事基地向现役军事人员提供 CBT 可减少自杀想法和自杀企图,[124]Rudd MD, Bryan CJ, Wertenberger EG, et al. Brief cognitive-behavioral therapy effects on post-treatment suicide attempts in a military sample: results of a randomized clinical trial with 2-year follow-up. Am J Psychiatry. 2015 May;172(5):441-9.https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.14070843http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25677353?tool=bestpractice.com 尚不清楚对其他人群或其他机构服军役人员的适用性。一项随机对照临床试验在有超高自杀风险个体中对使用专门针对专业精神健康服务机构设计的心理治疗干预进行了评估,研究结果显示在一小组接受超过 2 年随访的患者中见到了积极的结果。[125]Gysin-Maillart A, Schwab S, Soravia L, et al. A novel brief therapy for patients who attempt suicide: a 24-months follow-up randomized controlled study of the attempted suicide short intervention program (ASSIP). PLoS Med. 2016 Mar 1;13(3):e1001968.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4773217/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26930055?tool=bestpractice.com
一项评价纳入了关于对自杀未遂者开展心理和社会心理干预的 RCT,发现精神动力人际关系治疗对减少边缘性人格障碍患者的自杀意念、习惯性自伤行为和自杀企图也可能有效。[117]Hepp U, Wittmann L, Schnyder U, et al. Psychological and psychosocial interventions after attempted suicide: an overview of treatment studies. Crisis. 2004;25(3):108-17.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15387237?tool=bestpractice.com 这项评价还强调了治疗联盟在项目成功中很关键,需要外展服务以提高患者参与度和依从性(在常规保健机构中很少超过 40%)。[118]van der Sande R, Buskens E, Allart E, et al. Psychosocial intervention following suicide attempt: a systematic review of treatment interventions. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1997 Jul;96(1):43-50.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9259223?tool=bestpractice.com 事实上,一项研究发现,当定期的个人书面联系保持了 5 年,抑郁或自杀状态的精神科住院治疗结束时,拒绝进一步治疗追踪的患者中自杀率显著降低。[126]Motto JA, Bostrom AG. A randomized controlled trial of postcrisis suicide prevention. Psychiatr Serv. 2001 Jun;52(6):828-33.https://ps.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/appi.ps.52.6.828http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11376235?tool=bestpractice.com
根据经验,对自杀患者有效的常见心理治疗包括:清晰的治疗框架;明确的自杀危机管理策略;对情感的密切关注;积极的参与性治疗风格;使用以探索和改变为导向的干预措施。[127]Weinberg I, Ronningstam E, Goldblatt MJ, et al. Strategies in treatment of suicidality: identification of common and treatment-specific interventions in empirically supported treatment manuals. J Clin Psychiatry. 2010 Jun;71(6):699-706.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20573329?tool=bestpractice.com
其他干预措施可能包括:集中发展长期个人目标,识别积极的期望,越过当前的痛苦去拓宽视野。社会支持和团体干预也可能有助于降低自杀风险。
关于无伤害合同(患者和临床医生之间达成的协议,患者通常以书面形式承诺不伤害自身)在减少自杀死亡或自杀企图的有效性方面,尚无经验证据。[128]Lewis LM. No-harm contracts: a review of what we know. Suicide Life Threat Behav. 2007 Feb;37(1):50-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17397279?tool=bestpractice.com 此外,一些证据表明这些合同其实还可能造成负面影响。[128]Lewis LM. No-harm contracts: a review of what we know. Suicide Life Threat Behav. 2007 Feb;37(1):50-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17397279?tool=bestpractice.com 同样地,也没有证据表明寄明信片干预可对青少年自杀风险产生有益影响。[129]Robinson JY, Jorm AM. Can receipt of a regular postcard reduce suicide-related behaviour in young help seekers? A randomized controlled trial. Early Interv Psychiatry. 2012 May;6(2):145-52.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22260366?tool=bestpractice.com 与标准治疗相比,对自杀未遂个人的外展服务(包括危机干预的个案管理、问题解决方面的培训、激励支持、帮助参加安排好的预约)对后续自杀企图无显著影响。[130]Morthorst B, Krogh J, Erlangsen A, et al. Effect of assertive outreach after suicide attempt in the AID (assertive intervention for deliberate self harm) trial: randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 2012 Aug 22;345:e4972.http://www.bmj.com/content/345/bmj.e4972?view=long&pmid=22915730http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22915730?tool=bestpractice.com 一项研究发现,自伤企图后进行系统的治疗性接触增加了重复自伤率。[131]Kapur N, Gunnell D, Hawton K, et al. Messages from Manchester: pilot randomised controlled trial following self-harm. Br J Psychiatry. 2013 Jul;203(1):73-4.http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/203/1/73.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23818535?tool=bestpractice.com 另一项研究发现,除常规治疗外,使用明信片干预措施并未减少蓄意中毒的重复发作。[132]Carter GL, Clover K, Whyte IM, et al. Postcards from the EDge: 5-year outcomes of a randomised controlled trial for hospital-treated self-poisoning. Br J Psychiatry. 2013 May;202(5):372-80.http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/202/5/372.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23520223?tool=bestpractice.com 一项丹麦随机对照临床试验显示,一个确定性的自杀未遂后外延计划并无积极影响,[130]Morthorst B, Krogh J, Erlangsen A, et al. Effect of assertive outreach after suicide attempt in the AID (assertive intervention for deliberate self harm) trial: randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 2012 Aug 22;345:e4972.http://www.bmj.com/content/345/bmj.e4972?view=long&pmid=22915730http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22915730?tool=bestpractice.com 并且针对各种短暂接触干预的一项 meta 分析表明,所提供的任何一种方法都没有显著的结局。[133]Milner AJ, Carter G, Pirkis J, et al. Letters, green cards, telephone calls and postcards: systematic and meta-analytic review of brief contact interventions for reducing self-harm, suicide attempts and suicide. Br J Psychiatry. 2015 Mar;206(3):184-90.http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/206/3/184.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25733570?tool=bestpractice.com
现有精神障碍
在理论上消除精神障碍或降低其程度应能降低自杀率。这已在实践中得到证明。例如,更好的检出重性抑郁及增加抗抑郁药处方,已使匈牙利和瑞典的自杀率降低。[134]Rihmer Z, Barsi J, Veg K, et al. Suicide rates in Hungary correlate negatively with reported rates of depression. J Affect Disord. 1990 Oct;20(2):87-91.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2148332?tool=bestpractice.com[135]Rutz W, von Knorring L, Walinder J. Long-term effects of an educational program for general practitioners given by the Swedish Committee for the Prevention and Treatment of Depression. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1992 Jan;85(1):83-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1546555?tool=bestpractice.com[136]Isacsson G, Rich CL. Antidepressant drug use and suicide prevention. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2005 Jun;17(3):153-62.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16194786?tool=bestpractice.com 同样地,治疗青少年抑郁患者时,在处方中减少选择性 5-羟色胺再摄取抑制剂 (SSRI) 的使用导致美国、加拿大和荷兰的自杀率增加。[137]Gibbons RD, Hur K, Bhaumik DK, et al. The relationship between antidepressant prescription rates and rate of early adolescent suicide. Am J Psychiatry. 2006 Nov;163(11):1898-904.https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/ajp.2006.163.11.1898http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17074941?tool=bestpractice.com[138]Katz LY, Kozyrskyj AL, Prior HJ, et al. Effect of regulatory warnings on antidepressant prescription rates, use of health services and outcomes among children, adolescents and young adults. CMAJ. 2008 Apr 8;178(8):1005-11.http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/178/8/1005http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18390943?tool=bestpractice.com
识别出的精神障碍应使用基于证据的最佳药物或心理干预进行治疗。一项研究发现,无论使用哪种干预措施,与开始治疗前的一个月相比,自杀企图在抑郁治疗开始后有所下降。[59]Simon GE, Savarino J. Suicide attempts among patients starting depression treatment with medications or psychotherapy. Am J Psychiatry. 2007 Jul;164(7):1029-34.https://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176/ajp.2007.164.7.1029http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17606654?tool=bestpractice.com 数据显示,风险评估(不是风险管理)对预测远期自杀的用处不大,且中止精神卫生治疗后自杀风险会增加。[94]Hor K, Taylor M, Hor K, et al. Suicide and schizophrenia: a systematic review of rates and risk factors. J Psychopharmacol. 2010 Nov;24(4 suppl):81-90.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2951591/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20923923?tool=bestpractice.com[95]Large M, Sharma S, Cannon E, et al. Risk factors for suicide within a year of discharge from psychiatric hospital: a systematic meta-analysis. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2011 Aug;45(8):619-28.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21740345?tool=bestpractice.com 数据显示有效治疗精神障碍可降低自杀风险,除此之外,一项大型、纵向、以登记库为基础、使用患者自身对比设计的药物-病因学的瑞典研究表明,使用药物治疗 ADHD 可减少自杀行为。[139]Chen Q, Sjolander A, Runeson B, et al. Drug treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and suicidal behaviour: register based study. BMJ. 2014 Jun 18;348:g3769.http://www.bmj.com/content/348/bmj.g3769.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24942388?tool=bestpractice.com
下面的讨论概括了已证实可减少精神障碍患者自杀行为和自杀死亡的治疗。
锂剂治疗减少双相和其他心境障碍患者自杀死亡和自杀未遂的长期有效性已得到公认(也可能对分裂情感性精神障碍患者有所帮助)。自杀和自杀企图风险降低:来自 meta 分析的中等质量证据表明,对双相情感障碍或其他重性情感障碍患者使用锂剂治疗,在平均 18 个月时,自杀和自杀企图风险降低了约 80%。[140]Baldessarini RJ, Tondo L, Davis P, et al. Decreased risk of suicides and attempts during long-term lithium treatment: a meta-analytic review. Bipolar Disord. 2006 Oct;8(5 Pt 2):625-39.http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/118606712/HTMLSTARThttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17042835?tool=bestpractice.com受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。[141]Cipriani A, Hawton K, Stockton S, et al. Lithium in the prevention of suicide in mood disorders: updated systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2013 Jun 27;346:f3646.http://www.bmj.com/content/346/bmj.f3646.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23814104?tool=bestpractice.com 停用锂剂治疗可能与自杀率升高有关。[142]Baldessarini RJ, Tondo L, Viguera AC. Discontinuing lithium maintenance treatment in bipolar disorders: risks and implications. Bipolar Disord. 1999 Sep;1(1):17-24.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11256650?tool=bestpractice.com 过量服用锂剂具有高致命性,因此在服用锂剂期间企图自杀的患者可能需要更换药物。患者应入院接受治疗,用药时需考虑使用抗精神病药物(例如氯氮平)或另一种情绪稳定剂(例如丙戊酸半钠)。与锂剂相比,关于丙戊酸半钠在预防自杀企图或自杀死亡方面相对有效性的报告不一。[143]Yerevanian BI, Koek RJ, Mintz J. Bipolar pharmacotherapy and suicidal behavior. Part I: Lithium, divalproex and carbamazepine. J Affect Disord. 2007 Nov;103(1-3):5-11.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17628692?tool=bestpractice.com[144]Collins JC, McFarland BH. Divalproex, lithium and suicide among Medicaid patients with bipolar disorder. J Affect Disord. 2008 Apr;107(1-3):23-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17707087?tool=bestpractice.com 使用双丙戊酸钠治疗不会增加与自杀相关的不良事件。[145]Redden LP, Saltarelli M. Suicidality and divalproex sodium: analysis of controlled studies in multiple indications. Ann Gen Psychiatry. 2011 Jan 18;10(1):1.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3032763/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21244672?tool=bestpractice.com
2018 年,欧洲药品管理局 (European Medicines Agency) 建议,在妊娠期禁止将丙戊酸及其类似物用于治疗双相情感障碍,因为在胎儿/儿童中存在先天畸形和出现发育问题的风险。[146]European Medicines Agency. New measures to avoid valproate exposure in pregnancy endorsed. March 2018 [internet publication].http://www.ema.europa.eu/ema/index.jsp?curl=pages/news_and_events/news/2018/03/news_detail_002929.jsp&mid=WC0b01ac058004d5c1在美国,标准做法是只在其他替代药物无法接受或无效时,仅开具丙戊酸及其类似物处方用于治疗妊娠期与双相情感障碍相关的躁狂发作。在欧洲和美国,除非已实施妊娠预防计划并且符合特定的条件,否则丙戊酸及其类似物不得用于具有生育可能的女性患者。[146]European Medicines Agency. New measures to avoid valproate exposure in pregnancy endorsed. March 2018 [internet publication].http://www.ema.europa.eu/ema/index.jsp?curl=pages/news_and_events/news/2018/03/news_detail_002929.jsp&mid=WC0b01ac058004d5c1
对于有高自杀风险的精神分裂症和分裂情感性精神障碍患者,在预防自杀企图方面,非典型抗精神病药氯氮平显著比奥氮平有效。[147]Meltzer HY, Alphs L, Green AI, et al. Clozapine treatment for suicidality in schizophrenia: International Suicide Prevention Trial (InterSePT). Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003 Jan;60(1):82-91.http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/60/1/82http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12511175?tool=bestpractice.com 2003 年,美国食品药品监督管理局批准将氯氮平用于降低精神分裂症的自杀风险。能治疗敌意、冲动、抑郁但又不会导致锥体外系副作用的抗精神病药物在降低自杀相关风险方面可能很重要。[148]Aguilar EJ, Siris SG, Aguilar EJ, et al. Do antipsychotic drugs influence suicidal behavior in schizophrenia? Psychopharmacol Bull. 2007;40(3):128-42.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18007574?tool=bestpractice.com
重性抑郁障碍的抗抑郁药治疗与自杀风险的大幅下降有关。[149]Perroud N, Uher R, Marusic A, et al. Suicidal ideation during treatment of depression with escitalopram and nortriptyline in genome-based therapeutic drugs for depression (GENDEP): a clinical trial. BMC Med. 2009 Oct 15;7:60.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2768737/?tool=pubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19832967?tool=bestpractice.com[150]Ernst CL, Goldberg JF. Antisuicide properties of psychotropic drugs: a critical review. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2004 Jan-Feb;12(1):14-41.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14965852?tool=bestpractice.com自杀风险降低:有高质量的证据表明,与安慰剂或活性药物对照药物相比,使用选择性 5-羟色胺再摄取抑制剂 (SSRI) 治疗存在抑郁和自杀倾向的患者,会减少自杀意念和死亡率。[150]Ernst CL, Goldberg JF. Antisuicide properties of psychotropic drugs: a critical review. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2004 Jan-Feb;12(1):14-41.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14965852?tool=bestpractice.com系统评价或者受试者>200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。 常用抗抑郁药包括氟西汀、西酞普兰和舍曲林(所有 SSRI 类药物)。以上 3 种药物拥有最佳的上市后监测数据且全部通用。使用较新、更昂贵的 SSRI 类药物不会增加实质性治疗益处。在边缘性和其他人格障碍患者中,对氟西汀和帕罗西汀预防自杀行为进行研究,并得出普遍的阳性结果。[150]Ernst CL, Goldberg JF. Antisuicide properties of psychotropic drugs: a critical review. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2004 Jan-Feb;12(1):14-41.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14965852?tool=bestpractice.com SSRI 是受欢迎的药物选择(主要原因是即使服用过量也安全)。然而,其他研究表明,所有抗抑郁药都可降低自杀风险。[151]Moller HJ, Baldwin DS, Goodwin G, et al. Do SSRIs or antidepressants in general increase suicidality? WPA Section on Pharmacopsychiatry: consensus statement. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2008 Aug;258(suppl 3):3-23.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18668279?tool=bestpractice.com 在年轻人中,在抗抑郁药治疗期间发生的自杀相关行为可能与更高的初始剂量和迅速上调剂量有关,[152]Miller M, Swanson SA, Azrael D, et al. Antidepressant dose, age, and the risk of deliberate self-harm. JAMA Intern Med. 2014 Jun;174(6):899-909.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24782035?tool=bestpractice.com 因此建议临床医师采用“低起始剂量和缓慢增量”的方法来给予药物治疗。
关于抗抑郁药对一些易受影响年轻人的部分作用、潜在影响、自杀促进作用仍有争议。[153]Kraus JE, Horrigan JP, Carpenter DJ, et al. Clinical features of patients with treatment-emergent suicidal behavior following initiation of paroxetine therapy. J Affect Disord. 2010 Jan;120(1-3):40-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19439363?tool=bestpractice.com[154]Tourian KA, Padmanabhan K, Groark J, et al. Retrospective analysis of suicidality in patients treated with the antidepressant desvenlafaxine. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2010 Aug;30(4):411-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20631558?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,近期多数分析支持这一结果,虽然少数患者在 SSRI 治疗时可有新的自杀意念或自伤,但整体而言,SSRI 治疗可实质性地减少年轻人的自杀率和自杀企图,[155]Kutcher S, Gardner DM. Use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and youth suicide: making sense from a confusing story. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2008 Jan;21(1):65-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18281842?tool=bestpractice.com[156]Brent DA. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and suicidality: a guide for the perplexed. Can J Psychiatry. 2009 Feb;54(2):72-4;discussion 75.http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/070674370905400202?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3dpubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19254435?tool=bestpractice.com抗抑郁药在青少年中的安全性:有高质量的证据表明,青少年的大多数自杀事件发生在持续存在抑郁和症状改善不充分的情况下,没有证据表明药物诱发行为激活为一种先兆。[157]Vitiello B, Silva SG, Rohde P, et al. Suicidal events in the Treatment for Adolescents With Depression Study (TADS). J Clin Psychiatry. 2009 Apr 21;70(5):741-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2702701/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19552869?tool=bestpractice.com系统评价或者受试者>200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。 但是与成人患者相比,对防止自杀的作用可能较小。[158]Gibbons RD, Brown CH, Hur K, et al. Suicidal thoughts and behavior with antidepressant treatment: reanalysis of the randomized placebo-controlled studies of fluoxetine and venlafaxine. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2012 Jun;69(6):580-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmid/22309973/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22309973?tool=bestpractice.com 2008 年世界精神病学协会药物精神病分会 (World Psychiatric Association Section on Pharmacopsychiatry) 发表的共识声明指出,“抗抑郁药(包括 SSRI 类药物)在 25 岁以下人群使用时有诱导自杀想法和自杀企图的轻微风险”。然而,还指出,“应权衡这种风险与抗抑郁药对抑郁和其他症状(包括自杀和自杀行为)的明确有益作用相权衡”。[151]Moller HJ, Baldwin DS, Goodwin G, et al. Do SSRIs or antidepressants in general increase suicidality? WPA Section on Pharmacopsychiatry: consensus statement. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2008 Aug;258(suppl 3):3-23.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18668279?tool=bestpractice.com 许多 meta 分析和其他研究得出了相同的结论,[158]Gibbons RD, Brown CH, Hur K, et al. Suicidal thoughts and behavior with antidepressant treatment: reanalysis of the randomized placebo-controlled studies of fluoxetine and venlafaxine. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2012 Jun;69(6):580-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmid/22309973/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22309973?tool=bestpractice.com[159]Rucci P, Frank E, Scocco P, et al. Treatment-emergent suicidal ideation during 4 months of acute management of unipolar major depression with SSRI pharmacotherapy or interpersonal psychotherapy in a randomized clinical trial. Depress Anxiety. 2011 Apr;28(4):303-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmid/21308882/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21308882?tool=bestpractice.com[160]Carpenter DJ, Fong R, Kraus JE, et al. Meta-analysis of efficacy and treatment-emergent suicidality in adults by psychiatric indication and age subgroup following initiation of paroxetine therapy: a complete set of randomized placebo-controlled trials. J Clin Psychiatry. 2011 Nov;72(11):1503-14.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21367354?tool=bestpractice.com[161]Gibbons RD, Mann JJ, Gibbons RD, et al. Strategies for quantifying the relationship between medications and suicidal behaviour: what has been learned? Drug Saf. 2011 May 1;34(5):375-95.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21513361?tool=bestpractice.com[162]Wightman DSF. Meta-analysis of suicidality in placebo-controlled clinical trials of adults taking bupropion. Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry. 2010;12(5).http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmid/21274361/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21274361?tool=bestpractice.com 并批判监管机构重视自杀想法而非自杀死亡的做法。[161]Gibbons RD, Mann JJ, Gibbons RD, et al. Strategies for quantifying the relationship between medications and suicidal behaviour: what has been learned? Drug Saf. 2011 May 1;34(5):375-95.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21513361?tool=bestpractice.com 一开始使用高剂量 SSRI 治疗可能是与自伤风险升高相关的一个因素,因此,在临床上应采用从“低剂量开始”、“逐渐加量”的方案。[152]Miller M, Swanson SA, Azrael D, et al. Antidepressant dose, age, and the risk of deliberate self-harm. JAMA Intern Med. 2014 Jun;174(6):899-909.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24782035?tool=bestpractice.com
一项综述分析了镇静药/安眠药对抑郁患者的焦虑症状进行急性治疗,并未发现任何证据表明,将镇静剂/安眠药作为抗抑郁治疗的早期辅助用药可降低自杀风险。[163]Youssef NA, Rich CL. Does acute treatment with sedatives/hypnotics for anxiety in depressed patients affect suicide risk? A literature review. Ann Clin Psychiatry. 2008 Jul-Sep;20(3):157-69.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18633742?tool=bestpractice.com 因为大量证据表明,镇静剂/安眠药在一小部分人中会产生抑郁和/或去抑制作用,所以对可能存在自杀风险的抑郁患者开具该药处方存在重大的潜在风险。[163]Youssef NA, Rich CL. Does acute treatment with sedatives/hypnotics for anxiety in depressed patients affect suicide risk? A literature review. Ann Clin Psychiatry. 2008 Jul-Sep;20(3):157-69.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18633742?tool=bestpractice.com 因此,有自杀风险的患者最好不要使用镇静剂/安眠药。
存在物质滥用
一项综述发现,对于自杀、酒依赖患者,没有经验性的入院标准。[164]Modesto-Lowe V, Brooks D, Ghani M. Alcohol dependence and suicidal behavior: from research to clinical challenges. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2006 Sep-Oct;14(5):241-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16990169?tool=bestpractice.com 对存在自杀意念或已表现出自杀行为的酒精或物质依赖/滥用的患者,应立即加以关注,并对其化学依赖和/或任何共病障碍进行特异性治疗。[164]Modesto-Lowe V, Brooks D, Ghani M. Alcohol dependence and suicidal behavior: from research to clinical challenges. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2006 Sep-Oct;14(5):241-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16990169?tool=bestpractice.com 这可能包括解毒治疗或对症(针对焦虑、激越、失眠和惊恐发作)治疗。[164]Modesto-Lowe V, Brooks D, Ghani M. Alcohol dependence and suicidal behavior: from research to clinical challenges. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2006 Sep-Oct;14(5):241-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16990169?tool=bestpractice.com 也可能包括用抗抑郁药(例如氟西汀)治疗共病心境障碍。[165]Cornelius JR, Clark DB, Salloum IM, et al. Interventions in suicidal alcoholics. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2004 May;28(suppl 5):S89-96.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15166640?tool=bestpractice.com
应考虑转诊到合适的康复机构。也推荐采取通用的环境预防措施(例如去除致命工具,由患者家人和朋友监控)。
自杀死亡者遗族
自杀会影响死者关系网中的许多人,包括配偶、父母、兄弟姐妹、朋友、熟人、同事以及医疗保健提供者。应为这些人提供悲伤辅导。悲伤辅导不会降低痛失亲人者的自杀风险。[166]Szumilas M, Kutcher S. Post-suicide intervention programs: a systematic review. Can J Public Health. 2011 Jan-Feb;102(1):18-29.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21485962?tool=bestpractice.com
自杀事后服务针对受近期自杀影响的个人。事后服务项目的目的是帮助应对悲伤过程,并通过对遗族(定义为受到死亡影响的所有人,包括家人、朋友、同学等)开展悲伤辅导和教育,以降低自杀传染 (suicide contagion) 的发生率。
已证明,自杀时对其家庭成员遗族提供外展服务,与不提供外展服务相比,可增加使用旨在帮助应对悲伤过程的服务。[167]Cerel J, Campbell FR. Suicide survivors seeking mental health services: a preliminary examination of the role of an active postvention model. Suicide Life Threat Behav. 2008 Feb;38(1):30-4.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18355106?tool=bestpractice.com 此外,由训练过的安抚者实施的丧亲支持小组干预可使心理困扰的指标(例如抑郁症状、焦虑症状和悲伤体验)明显改善。[168]Constantino RE, Sekula LK, Rubinstein EN. Group intervention for widowed survivors of suicide. Suicide Life Threat Behav. 2001 Winter;31(4):428-41.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11775718?tool=bestpractice.com[169]Constantino RE, Bricker PL. Nursing postvention for spousal survivors of suicide. Issues Ment Health Nurs. 1996 Mar-Apr;17(2):131-52.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8707534?tool=bestpractice.com[170]Murphy SA, Johnson C, Cain KC, et al. Broad-spectrum group treatment for parents bereaved by the violent deaths of their 12- to 28-year-old children: a randomized controlled trial. Death Stud. 1998;22(3):209-35.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10182433?tool=bestpractice.com[171]Pfeffer CR, Jiang H, Kakuma T, et al. Group intervention for children bereaved by the suicide of a relative. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2002 May;41(5):505-13.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12014782?tool=bestpractice.com[172]Farberow NL. The Los Angeles Survivors-After-Suicide program. An evaluation. Crisis. 1992;13(1):23-34.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1395706?tool=bestpractice.com[173]Rogers J, Sheldon A, Barwick C, et al. Help for families of suicide: survivors support program. Can J Psychiatry. 1982 Oct;27(6):444-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7139517?tool=bestpractice.com[174]Battle AO. Group therapy for survivors of suicide. Crisis. 1984;5:45-58. 但仍需进一步研究,因为效果因个人和生存人群而异,且项目所产生的效果可能因性别(母亲 vs 父亲)和困扰的严重程度而异。[170]Murphy SA, Johnson C, Cain KC, et al. Broad-spectrum group treatment for parents bereaved by the violent deaths of their 12- to 28-year-old children: a randomized controlled trial. Death Stud. 1998;22(3):209-35.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10182433?tool=bestpractice.com